Azkali grammar

Azkali grammar is the structural rules which the Azkali language follows, including the rules for words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Morphology

There are seven different parts of speech that are commonly identified by linguists in Azkali: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adpositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It is generally not possible to identify which part of speech an Azkali word belongs to by itself. However, a large amount of words belong to multiple parts of speech.

Azkali is considered an open class language. This even applies to pronouns, and even conjugation and grammatical markers, in addition to other types of words.

This section will cover the morphology of all Azkali parts of speech.

Nouns

Azkali nouns are overtly declined for six grammatical cases (the ergative, absolutive, possessive, privative, dative, and instrumental) and three numbers (the singular, paucal, and plural). Azkali nouns are constructed agglunatively, contrasting with verbs. In addition, Azkali also features a robust inverse number system, though it is only regularly used in formal speech.

Affixes occur in a relatively set order, displayed in the below noun template chart:

Azkali noun template

Definite article circumfix	NOUN STEM	Case affix	Number affix	Comparison affix	Definite article circumfix	Inverse number affix

Case

A diagram highlighting ergative alignment. A is the subject of a transitive verb, O is the object of a transitive verb, and S is the subject of an intransitive verb. S and O are marked in the absolutive case, and A is marked in the ergative case.

Case inflection in Azkali is fairly straightforward; the affixes only change depending on the lack of presence of a root final vowel. There are six grammatical cases in Azkali. The ergative case is used for subjects of transitive verbs. The absolutive case is used for subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs. The possessive case is used for direct ownership. The privative case is used to mark the lack of direct ownership. The dative case is used to mark the indirect object of an action, as well as the purpose of an action. In addition, in extremely formal varieties of Azkali, the dative case is occasionally used to denote a noun that is owned by the noun in the phrase with the possessive case. Finally, the instrumental case is used to mark that the noun is the instrument in which the action is achieved, or occurs; the instrumental case can be used for both physical objects, or ideas and concepts.

The ergative and absolutive cases are not regularly used with nouns, instead being only used for pronouns. The other four cases, however, are productive in regular nouns.

Out of all cases used in colloquial Azkali, the dative case is by far the most uncommon. Its use is largely limited to school and work environments and set phrases. Its usage is declining in domestic Azkali dialects but remains somewhat common in international Azkali dialects, particularly in Sunteria.

In formal varieties of Azkali, the possessive case is used more like a genitive case; the distinction here is that in most forms of Azkali, the possessive case is used purely in the context of possession. Contrastingly, in formal varieties, it's use has broadened to include generic modification. In colloquial forms of Azkali, generic modification is marked by the adposition haoz, meaning "of".

The following chart shows each case suffix.

Azkali suffixes for grammatical case

Case	Vowel ending	Consonant ending
Ergative	∅
Absolutive
Possessive	-k	-ek
Privative	-z	-az
Dative	-ti	-eti
Instrumental	-gez	-ez

Shown below are several examples of these cases in use for various words, and their respective meanings. Note the usage of (-∅) for nouns rendered in the ergative and absolutive case.

Examples of grammatical case with three Azkali words

		Word
		akimateya - (a) relative (as in family)	nedhathu - (a) message	koroz - (a) bridge
Case	Ergative	akimateya(-∅) (relative)
	Absolutive
	Possessive	akimateyak (a relative's (...))	nedhathuk (a message's (...))	korozek (a bridge's (...))
	Privative	akimateyaz (lacking a relative)	nedhathuz (lacking a message)	korozaz (lacking a bridge)
	Dative	akimateyati (to a relative)	nedhathuti (to a message)	korozeti (to a bridge)
	Instrumental	akimateyagez (done with a relative)	nedhathugez (done with a message)	korozez (done with a bridge)

Some nouns, particularly common culturally important nouns in Turruism, have irregular case forms. A non exhaustive list of irregular nouns, and their respective forms, follows:

• Tuhakoi (the sun) - Tuhakoi, Tuhakola, Tzerakaiz, Tukahoti, Tuhakoigez
• Agnetok (hill) - Agnetok, Agnetokak, Agnetoaz, Agnetai, Agnitegaz
• Turru (earth) - Turru, Kacha Turru, Za Turru, Gatzurru, Gaziturru
• Ra (air) - Ra, Rak, Raiz, Rai, Reis
• Dharran (knowledge) - Dharran, Dharrangak, Dharranaz, Dharrenati, Dharregez

Number and inverse number

Number inflection always follows, when even present, case. As mentioned before, there are three grammatical numbers in Azkali - the singular, which is unmarked, the paucal, and plural. The following chart shows each number suffix; one should note that when used in combination with the dative case, the number affixes take the vowel ending form, due to the presence of a vowel at the end of the dative affix.

Number	Vowel ending	Consonant aside from "tz" ending	"Tz" ending
Singular	∅
Paucal	-tz	-etz	-et
Plural	-rek	-erek

For nouns that end with "tz", a special affix for the paucal number exists. For example, the paucal version of the word leizitz, meaning lizard, is leizitzet, not the expected leizitzetz.

There exists several nouns that have irregular forms based on what number they are being declined for; a non-exhaustive list of these irregular nouns, and their respective forms, follows:

• Kali (person, usually a member of the kali species) - Kali, Kalitz, Urokoz
• Kalin (city) - Kalin, Kalinetz, Kalirenek

An inverse number system exists in Azkali. For the most part, it is only regularly used in formal speech and common phrases, but it can be seen regularly even in informal speech in Allotian and Otzeipao dialects of Azkali. Inverse number is mostly used on nouns with inherent grammatical number, i.e (a pair of) socks (with a dual implication), cattle (with a plural implication), (a pair of) scissors (with a plural implication), and so on. It denotes that the grammatical number of the noun is different than to what the implication is. The inverse number markers change depending on the noun's actual number, and the noun ending, and if the marker is after the definite article. For nouns with a singular inherent grammatical number, the singular is used, and so on.

Inverse number markers in Azkali

	Vowel ending	Consonant ending	After the definite article
Singular	-l	-al	-li
Paucal	-tsi	-atsi	-tsi
Plural	-rezk	-arezk	-tsezk

To complete a phrase using inverse number markers, the numeral denoting the actual number in the form of a numeral is placed after the noun.

Pronouns

In Azkali, pronouns are often combined with determiners to form the pronoun part of speech. Pronouns in Azkali are inflected to indicate their role in the clause, as well as the person, gender, and number of their referent.

Personal and reflexive pronouns

The following table shows each personal pronoun in Azkali, declining for case and number. In addition, there are also reflexive pronouns included; while not a case in itself, in most Azkali grammars, the reflexive pronouns are included with the personal ones.

Personal pronouns

Singular
		Ergative	Absolutive	Possessive	Privative	Dative	Instrumental	Reflexive
1st		go	en	enek	goz	get	gokoz	go ten
2nd		tu		tuek	tukoz	tet	tukoz	tu ten
3rd	masculine	mai		maik	maiz	het	hekoz	ha ten
	feminine	kut	kurez	kutek	keiz
	neutral	hakel		harek	heiz
Paucal
1st		tzo	tzen		tzeiz	tzego		tzo ten
2nd		tzu		tzuk	tzuiz	tzeutu		tzu ten
3rd		tzare	rutzez	tzak	tzaiz	tzere		tzare ten
Plural
1st		thou	then		thaoz	theo		theo ten
2nd		the	thoru	ethu	tzauz	teo		teo ten
3rd		thin		ethi	ethez	keo		keo ten

The neutral pronouns work essentially the same as epicene pronouns in other languages. They are used when it is unclear of the person's gender, no specification is needed, and so on.

Determiners

Most determiners appear to have evolved from remnants of older Azkali pronouns; specifically, it appears that they evolved from old gendered paucal and plural third person pronouns (in the ergative and possessive cases). This is the reason why determiners are considered a subset of pronouns. They have in modern times lost their meaning as pronouns and instead have evolved into determiners.

Demonstrative determiners

Azkali demonstrative determiners

Singular	Paucal	Plural
tzuai	tzut	tzeal
(Suffix forms)
Singular	Paucal	Plural
-(a)zuai	-(a)zut	-(a)zeal

The demonstrative determiners can mean both this or that, these few, those few, these, or those. They are placed before the noun they modify, but they have special forms (the suffix forms) if more precision is needed.

Verbs

The verb in Azkali is considered the most complex area of grammar to learn. It remains remarkably distinct from how verbs in other languages in it's vicinity such as Baphian, Oikan, or Loremese are treated and is considered the most difficult aspect of Azkali to learn for a newcomer. Despite this fact, the Azkali verb is extremely regular and in most dialects, there is infact only one fully irregular verb - to be. Azkali verbs are polypersonal, and they can mark the subject and direct object of a clause, and in situations in which it applies, the indirect object. They also mark for tense, mood, and voice and in certain common verbs can be optionally marked with adpositional information (denoted as the "postverb"). In addition, in certain common verbs there are the "version affixes" which further clarify how a participant is affected by the action. Azkali verbs can have up to 54,450 forms when accounting for all of these factors.

The Azkali verb can be described in the following template:

Azkali verb template

Dative argument affix	Absolutive person affix	Negative affix	VERB STEM	Tense/mood/voice affix	Version affix	Ergative argument affix	Postverb affix

Person indices

All verbs can take the following sets of person-indexing affixes. There are three sets of person indices: the absolutive set, the ergative set, and dative set. The absolutive set indexes the subject of an intransitive verb and direct object of a transitive verb. The ergative set indexes the subject of a transitive verb. The dative set indexes the person of a dative argument in a clause. The absolutive set is indexed as follows: -en(e)- for the first person singular (from the absolutive first person singular pronoun en), -t(u)- for the second person singular (from the absolutive second person singular person pronoun tu), -m(a)- for the masculine third person singular (from the absolutive third person masculine singular pronoun mai); to mark the third person neutral (used for inanimate objects or an unspecified person) no suffix is used. As for paucal person marking, -tz(a) is used for the first person paucal (from the absolutive first person paucal pronoun tzen), -u(k)- is used for the second person paucal (from the absolutive second person paucal pronoun tzu), -r(a)- is used for the third person paucal (from the absolutive third person paucal pronoun rutzez). And as for plural person marking, -g(e)- is used for the first person plural (from an old absolutive first person plural pronoun geia), -ro(z)- is used for the second person plural (from the absolutive second person plural pronoun thoru), and -in(o) is used for the third person plural (from the absolutive third person plural pronoun thin.)

Absolutive person indices

Singular	1p		(-)en(e)-
	2p		(-)t(u)-
	3p	masculine	(-)m(a)-
		feminine	(-)ez(e)-
		neutral	N/A
Paucal	1p		(-)tz(a)-
	2p		(-)u(k)-
	3p		(-)r(a)-
Plural	1p		(-)g(e)-
	2p		(-)ro(z)-
	3p		(-)in(o)-

The negative marker is -ke, or when proceeded by an absolutive person affix that ends with a consonant, -eke, or with a verb stem that starts with /o/ or /u/, -ken-, or both scenarios, -eken-. However some scenarios permit a cluster: for example, the combination of the singular third person feminine absolutive prefix and negative affix is ezke, and the combination of the plural second person absolutive prefix and negative affix is rozke (however, in some dialects it is roke).

Ergative person indices

			non word final	word final
Singular	1p		-g(ei)-	-(e)gi
	2p		-t(a)-	-(e)ti
	3p	masculine	-t(ei)-	-(a)tei
		feminine	-k(i)-	-(a)ki
		neutral	-h(i)-	-(a)sai
Paucal	1p		-s(o)-	-(s)ol
	2p		-s(u)-	-(s)ul
	3p		-sar(i)-	-(s)ari
Plural	1p		-t(ou)-	-(t)ouk
	2p		-t(e)-	-(t)eisi
	3p		-t(i)-	-(t)ik

In a situation where there is a dative argument, often times in bitransitive and transitive verbs, the following prefixes are used:

Dative person indices

Singular	1p		et(a)-
	2p		ti(z)-
	3p	masculine	im(a)-
		feminine	iz(a)-
		neutral	ik(e)-
Paucal	1p		itz(a)-
	2p		i(z)-
	3p		iru(z)-
Plural	1p		ig(ei)-
	2p		iro(k)-
	3p		in(e)-

An example of these being used is in the sentence "I baked the cake for him long ago", which is imatatazagi, which breaks up into ima-tata-za-gi; ima is the dative singular third person masculine prefix, tata is the verb stem meaning bake, za is the far past indicative active affix, and gi is the ergative singular first person suffix.

Tense/mood/voice

The next component of the Azkali verb is the tense/mood/voice affix: they inflect for three tenses, three moods, and five seperate voices in a single suffix. The active voice is the default voice, and denotes that the subject is the doer of an action. The middle voice denotes when the subject is the doer of an action and is affected by the action. The passive voice denotes the subject being the patient of the action. The causative voice denotes that the subject causes someone or someone else to do or to be something. The reciprocal voice denotes that each participant are both simultaneously the agent and patient of an action: they are "doing it to each other".

		active voice	middle voice	passive voice	causative voice	reciprocal voice
Indicative mood	far past	-z(a)-	-t(o)-	-tz(ai)-	-gu(niz)-	-zaz(ai)-
	past	-nu(z)-	-tu(z)-	-tz(eu)-		-zuaz(a)-
	non past	∅	-ta(z)-	-tz(oi)-		-anaz(a)-
Conditional mood	far past	-n(a)-	-t(a)-	-tz(a)	-hun(ai)-	-nan(a)-
	past	-i(z)-	-at(a)-	-atz(a)-	-he(k)-	-in(a)
	non past	-o(z)-	-ot(ei)-	-otz(a)-	-oisk(a)-	-on(a)-
Hypothetical mood	far past	-ta(z)-	-na(k)-	-natz(ai)-	-iak(a)-	-at(a)-
	past	-r(ei)-	-nar(a)-	-narotz(a)-	-eak(a)-	-ar(a)-
	non past	-er(i)-	-neir(oi)-	-nerotz(ei)-	-ainak(a)-	-eir(oi)-

Adpositions

Adpositions are words that express spatial, temporal, or semantic roles. In Azkali, adpositions feature as a whole prepositions, which proceed their complement, postpositions, which follow their complement, and several circumpositions, which are affixed on both sides of their complement.