Kjaxono verbs: Difference between revisions

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== Overview ==
== Overview ==
Kjaxono verbs are constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features.  
Kjaxono verbs are constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features.  
Kjaxono verbs have 5 main tenses: the ''past, hodiernal, present, perfect,'' and ''future''. The ''perfect tense'' has 5 different forms, of which are conveyed via the preverb slot of Kjaxono's verb template. The individual perfect subtenses are sometimes considered tenses by themselves, but they do not vary morphologically except in the preverb. Otherwise, the perfect tense takes the same conjugation as the present, lacking a tense affix. Tense is applied to the '''2a''' subslot of the '''TmpD''' slot, and the '''6b''' subslot of the '''At²''' slot only if aspect is also expressed. Tense is also sometimes applied on the '''1b''' subslot of the '''PrV''' slot.
Kjaxono verbs have 5 moods: the ''indicative, conditional, potential, hypothetical,'' and ''imperative''. The imperative mood specifically has two seperate submoods: the hard and soft. Typically, the hard imperative is used by people of higher social classes to people of lower social status. Some examples of this would be an employer to an employee, by parents to children, etc. The soft imperative is used far more commonly, and acts as a more polite and formal version of the latter. Mood is applied to the '''2b''' subslot of the '''TmpD''' slot of the verb template as seen below. Moods are marked in combination with person. As a result, one does not necessarily need a pronoun at the start of the phrase to make sense.   
Kjaxono verbs have 3 evidentialities: the ''direct, reportative,'' and ''assumptive''. The direct is employed when the speaker has directly witnessed the event being discussed. The reportative is employed when the speaker is reporting the event, but has not actually witnessed the event themselves. Finally, the assumptive is employed when the speaker is assuming the event being discussed occured. Evidentiality is applied to the '''E''' and '''8b''' subslot of the '''PsVe²''' slot; this means that evidentiality is doubly marked. When evidentiality is conjugated for, a postverb follows. 
Whilst usually conveyed via word order, Kjaxono verbs have 3 voices: the ''active, middle'', and ''passive''. They are applied to the '''V''' slot of the verb template as seen below. 
Kjaxono verbs have 4 aspects: the ''Perfective'', ''Habitual'', ''Continuous'', and ''Gnomic.'' When included, aspect is marked alongside tense (tense being doubly marked) in the '''6a''' subslot of '''At²''' slot of the verb template as seen below.   


A unique feature only found in the [..] language family is the prescence of what is translated as ''pattern''. Pattern is described in most grammars of [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]] as an event's manner, in relation to time. Pattern should not be confused with aspect, aspect being how an event extends over time. The two are often entangled, and in combination can produce many very precise scenarios. There are four patterns in Kjaxono:   
A unique feature only found in the [..] language family is the prescence of what is translated as ''pattern''. Pattern is described in most grammars of [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]] as an event's manner, in relation to time. Pattern should not be confused with aspect, aspect being how an event extends over time. The two are often entangled, and in combination can produce many very precise scenarios. There are four patterns in Kjaxono:   
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* The '''irregularitive pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being irregular.
* The '''irregularitive pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being irregular.
* The '''fragmentative pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, but in short bursts, or fragments, with the length of time between each event being irregular. The fragmentative pattern is occasionally considered a subpattern within the irregularitive pattern, but this article will treat the fragmentative pattern as a seperate pattern.
* The '''fragmentative pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, but in short bursts, or fragments, with the length of time between each event being irregular. The fragmentative pattern is occasionally considered a subpattern within the irregularitive pattern, but this article will treat the fragmentative pattern as a seperate pattern.
Pattern is indicated both as a suffix occuring in the '''5a''' slot of the verb template as shown below, and in the '''8c''' substot of the '''PsVe² slot.'''. In other words, if pattern is included within the verb, a postverb must follow.
In total, Kjaxono verbs conjugate for the following. Segments that are <u>underlined</u> are only featured in irregular verbs. 
* '''Person'''
** ''Indefinite''
** ''Definite''
* '''Tense'''
* '''Tense'''
** ''[[W:Past tense|Past]]''
** ''[[W:Past tense|Past]]''
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Kjaxono verb template
|+Kjaxono verb template
! colspan="2" |PrV
!'''pC'''
! colspan="2" |TmpD
!TM
!E
!EV
! rowspan="3" |'''STEM'''
| rowspan="3" |'''STEM'''
!P
!VP
! colspan="2" |'''At²'''
!A
!V
!'''pC'''
! rowspan="4" |
! colspan="2" |PsVe'''²'''
|-
|-
| colspan="2" |Preverb
| rowspan="2" |Polypersonal clitic
| rowspan="2" |'''Tense'''
|<u>Tense</u>
|'''Person and Mood'''
| rowspan="2" |Evidentiality
| rowspan="2" |Evidentiality
| rowspan="2" |Pattern
|Voice
|Aspect
| rowspan="2" |Aspect
|Tense
| rowspan="2" |Polypersonal clitic
| rowspan="2" |Voice
| colspan="2" |Postverb
|-
|-
|Locative type
|<u>Mood</u>
|Tense
|''One affix''
| colspan="2" |''One affix''
|Evidentiality
|Pattern
|Pattern
|-
|-
!1a
!1
!1b
!2
!2a
!2b
!3
!3
!4
!4
!5a
!5
!6a
!6
!6b
!7
!7
!8a
|-
!8b
|}
Only the parts in '''bold''' are required to be present within a Kjaxono verb. These are the most common seen colloquially, though in academic speech more inflection may be used. 


==== Preverb and postverb ====
|-
The terms preverb and postverb in Kjaxono refer to particles surounding verbs. The term preverb is used to signify tense and locative and vaguely prepositional information. The modern Kjaxono preverb used to be an auxiliary verb, but now it has been incorporated into the verb complex. The postverb is a mostly optional auxiliary verb that simultaneously encodes for evidentiality and pattern - these are doubly marked, both of these features being included in the verb complex, and in several of Kjaxono's dialects and sister languages, the postverb has gradually faded away in use.


== Transitive scale (Objective scale) ==
=== Northern objective scale ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Preverb tenses
! colspan="4" |Perfect
! rowspan="2" |Past
! rowspan="2" |Nonpast
|-
!Continuative perfect
!Anterior perfect
!Universal perfect
!Recent perfect
|-
|n(ǔ)-
|e(ǔ)-
|p(ǔ)-
|b(ǔ)-
|e-
|n-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Tense and mood prefixes
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |Tense
! rowspan="8" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Mood
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
|-
! rowspan="2" |Past
!Past
|i-
! colspan="2" |Indicative
|'''N/A'''
|c(e)-
| rowspan="2" |kj(e)-
|s(e)-
|cj(e)-
| rowspan="2" |k(e)-
|-
!Hodiernal
|ǔ-
! colspan="2" |Conditional
|x(e)-
| rowspan="2" |ŋ(e)-
|xj(e)-
| rowspan="2" |ŋj(e)-
|-
! colspan="2" |Perfect
| rowspan="2" |'''N/A'''
! colspan="2" |Potential
|q(e)-
|tj(e)-
| rowspan="2" |l(e)-
|t(e)-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nonpast
!Present
! colspan="2" |Hypothetical
|h(i)
|hŋ(i)-
|x̌ŋ(i)-
|ŋj(u)-
|x̌(i)-
|-
!Future
|e-
! rowspan="2" |Imperative
!Hard
! rowspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |ż(o)-
! rowspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |qż(o)-
|-
| colspan="3" |(Prefixed onto the '''TmpD''' slot)
!Soft
| colspan="2" |c(o)-
| colspan="2" |gqż(o)-
|}
In addition, all tenses excluding the present triggers vowel gradation, turning the final vowel of the verb stem into /a/.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Evidentiality prefixes
|-
!Direct
| -x̌q-
|-
!Reportative
| -d-
|-
!Assumptive
| -ng-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Pattern suffixes
|-
!Punctual
| -ik(-)
|-
!Repetitive
| -tk(-)
|-
!Irregularitive
| -lǒ(-)
|-
!Fragmentative
| -te(-)
|}
Note that both the evidentiality and pattern affixes appear in the postverb as well as being affixes within the verb complex.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Aspect and tense suffixes (with voice changes)
! colspan="7" |Active voice
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Non word final
! rowspan="6" |
! colspan="2" |Word final
|-
!Past
!Perfect
!Nonpast
!Past
!Nonpast
|-
!Perfective
| rowspan="2" | -gje(-)
| -gje(-)
| -gjǒ(-)
| rowspan="2" | -gjut
| rowspan="2" | -tjǔt
|-
!Habitual
| colspan="2" | -gja(-)
|-
!Continuous
| -ŋke(-)
| colspan="2" | -ŋa(-)
| -njut
| -ŋjǔt
|-
!Gnomic
| -gje(-)
| -gje(-)
| -gjǔ(-)
| -gju
| -gjǔt
|-
! colspan="7" |Middle voice
|-
!Perfective
| rowspan="2" | -d(-)
| -de(-)
| -dǒ(-)
! rowspan="4" |
| rowspan="2" | -du
| rowspan="2" | -dǔt
|-
!Habitual
| colspan="2" | -da(-)
|-
!Continuous
| -ŋ(-)
| colspan="2" | -ŋa(-)
| -ŋu
| -ŋǔt
|-
!Gnomic
| -gj(-)
| -gje(-)
| -gjǔ(-)
| -gu
| -gǔt
|-
! colspan="7" |Passive voice
|-
!Perfective
| rowspan="2" | -ge(-)
| -deg(-)
| -dǒŋ(-)
! rowspan="4" |
| rowspan="2" | -duŋ
| rowspan="2" | -dǔŋ
|-
!Habitual
| colspan="2" | -dag(-)
|-
!Continuous
| rowspan="2" | -ŋe(-)
| colspan="2" | -ŋag(-)
| -kuŋ
| -kǔŋ
|-
!Gnomic
| -geg(-)
| -gjǔŋ(-)
| -guŋ
| -gǔŋ
|}
Note: the perfect is combined with the nonpast tense word finally. While considered seperate suffixes, voice suffixes change the aspect and tense markings they follow when they appear together. Since this is the case, there are two tables with voice: by themselves, and combined with the aspect and tense suffix. Most aspect and tense combination suffixes display only a past and nonpast/perfect distinction, however the perfective and imperfective do not. The perfective and momentane aspects have merged phonologically in the past tense.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Voice suffixes (by themselves)
|-
!Active
| -ke-
|-
!Middle
| '''N/A'''
|-
!Passive
| -mǐg
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Postverb
!
!Punctual
!Repetitive
!Irregularitive
!Fragmentative
|-
!Direct
|x̌ik
|x̌atqi
|x̌alǒ
|x̌aihe
|-
!Reportative
|diax̌
|diaqi
|dilǒ
|daihe
|-
|-
!Assumptive
|ngak
|ngaqi
|ngaǒ
|ngaihe
|}


==== Examples ====
The verb we will use as an example is aqaǔŋ - to bring.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Maximally possible example
! colspan="2" |PrV
! colspan="2" |TmpD
!E
! rowspan="2" |'''aqaǔŋ'''
!P
! colspan="2" |'''At²'''
!V
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |PsVe'''²'''
|-
|a
|n
|'''N/A'''
|ŋe
|x̌q
|lǒ
| colspan="2" |gjǒ
|ke
| colspan="2" |x̌alǒ
|-
!1a
!1b
!2a
!2b
!3
!4
!5a
!6a
!6b
!7
!8a
!8b
|}
|}
anŋex̌q'''aqaǔŋ'''lǒgjǒke x̌alǒ = ''"you bring (it) at irregular intervals to the place"''
Only the parts in '''bold''' are required to be present within a Kjaxono verb. These are the most common seen colloquially, though in academic speech more inflection may be used. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Another maximally possible example
! colspan="2" |PrV
! colspan="2" |TmpD
!E
! rowspan="2" |'''aqaǔŋ'''
!P
! colspan="2" |'''At²'''
!V
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |PsVe'''²'''
|-
|ag
|e
|i
|ce
|ng
|tk
| colspan="2" |qxe
|mǐg
| colspan="2" |x̌atqi
|-
!1a
!1b
!2a
!2b
!3
!4
!5a
!6a
!6b
!7
!8a
!8b
|}
ageiceng'''aqaǔŋ'''tkqxemǐg x̌atqi = "''you brought it at repetitive intervals to the place''"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Minimally possible example
! colspan="2" |PrV
! colspan="2" |TmpD
!E
! rowspan="2" |'''aqaǔŋ'''
!P
! colspan="2" |'''At²'''
!V
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |PsVe'''²'''
|-
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|e
|x
|'''N/A'''
|'''N/A'''
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|'''N/A'''
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|-
!1a
!1b
!2a
!2b
!3
!4
!5a
!6a
!6b
!7
!8a
!8b
|}
ex'''aqaǔŋ''' = ''"i could bring it"''
{| class="wikitable"
|+Another minimally possible example
! colspan="2" |PrV
! colspan="2" |TmpD
!E
! rowspan="2" |'''aqaǔŋ'''
!P
! colspan="2" |'''At²'''
!V
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |PsVe'''²'''
|-
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|'''N/A'''
|gqżo
|'''N/A'''
|'''N/A'''
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|'''N/A'''
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|-
!1a
!1b
!2a
!2b
!3
!4
!5a
!6a
!6b
!7
!8a
!8b
|}
gqżo'''aqaǔŋ''' = ''"could y'all/they bring it"''


== Transitive scale (Objective scale) ==
=== Northern objective scale ===
=== Southern objective scale ===
=== Southern objective scale ===
The southern objective scale appears to be majorly defective, with a large amount of features present in the other objective scales being phonologically the same.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Preverb
! colspan="4" |Perfect
! rowspan="2" |Past
! rowspan="2" |Nonpast
|-
!Continuative perfect
!Anterior perfect
!Universal perfect
!Recent perfect
|-
| colspan="2" |ng(ǔ)-
|b-
|e-
| colspan="2" |'''N/A'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Tense and mood prefixes
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |Tense
! rowspan="8" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Mood
! colspan="3" |Singular
and Plural
|-
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
|-
! rowspan="2" |Past
!Past
|i-
! colspan="2" |Indicative
|'''N/A'''
|c(e)-
| rowspan="2" |k(e)-
|-
!Hodiernal
| rowspan="2" |ǔ-
! colspan="2" |Conditional
|x(e)-
|d(e)-
|-
! colspan="2" |Perfect
! colspan="2" |Potential
| rowspan="2" |t(e)-
| rowspan="2" |h(i)-
| rowspan="2" |t(e)-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nonpast
!Present
|iq-
! colspan="2" |Hypothetical
|-
!Future
|e-
! rowspan="2" |Imperative
!Hard
! rowspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |żj(o)-
|-
| colspan="3" |(Prefixed onto the '''TmpD''' slot)
!Soft
| colspan="2" |cj(o)-
|}
The forms for the singular and plural tenses, and the potential and hypothetical moods have merged in the southern objective scale.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Evidentiality prefixes
|-
!Direct
| -x̌u-
|-
!Reportative
| -mu-
|-
!Assumptive
| -gu-
|}
=== Eastern objective scale ===
=== Eastern objective scale ===


Revision as of 01:58, 1 August 2024

Due to its complexity and widespread irregularities, unique words to describe unusual concepts in regards to conjugation, and concepts with little if any equivelant in any other natural language, verbs in Kjaxono often pose a mammoth stonewall to learners of the language. This article presupposes familiarity at least with Kjaxono grammar.

Scales and subscales

When talking about Kjaxono, unique terminology is often employed when referring to its verbal system: the two most important are scales and subscales. These roughly correspond to ordinary conjugations in other languages, but scales and subscales distinguish themselves from other language's conjugation systems in several ways. For example, some scales may imply seperate inoformation of which in an ordinary language's conjugation would have to be conjugated in addition. Another difference is the manner of which Kjaxono verbs conjugate, which is also significantly different from other languages.

In the Cjaingi Omacili, scales (Gqabakjoŋ /ɢa.'ba.kʲoŋ/ in Kjaxono) and subscales (Kangakjoŋ /ka.ɴa.kʲoŋ/) are described as so:

"[...] it [scales] is the system in verbs in which we classify, organize, and differentiate between the verbs in which take objects and not, to ensure that [subscales] see the lines and draw correctly in their wake [...]" (Page 291-292)

In Kjaxono, two types of scales are used: the transitive and intransitive. The transitive scale is used primarily for transitive verbs, aswell as with volitive verbs. The intransitive scale, meanwhile, is used for intransitive verbs and involitive verbs. Translated from the Cjaingi Omacili, the two scales in Kjaxono translate as the Objective scale, and Non-objective (or anti-objective) scale respectively. The objective scale and non-objective scale are what these are referred to by most linguists in Xjetjeŋ. The three subscales within are called the northern (qahaż), eastern (iemaqaż), and western (eameqeż) subscales. The northern subscale refers to verbs of any scale that start with front vowels, the eastern subscale refers to verbs of any scale that start with back vowels, and the western subscale refers to verbs that starts with consonants.

Due to Kjaxono's status as an open class language, newly coined verbs are assigned to each of the two scales depending on their intended transitivity or intransitivity.

Overview

Kjaxono verbs are constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features.

A unique feature only found in the [..] language family is the prescence of what is translated as pattern. Pattern is described in most grammars of Kjaxono as an event's manner, in relation to time. Pattern should not be confused with aspect, aspect being how an event extends over time. The two are often entangled, and in combination can produce many very precise scenarios. There are four patterns in Kjaxono:

  • The punctual pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at a single moment in time. The event in question is usually very brief in duration. Some examples of such events would be the flick of a match, a clap, etc.
  • The repetitive pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being regular.
  • The irregularitive pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being irregular.
  • The fragmentative pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, but in short bursts, or fragments, with the length of time between each event being irregular. The fragmentative pattern is occasionally considered a subpattern within the irregularitive pattern, but this article will treat the fragmentative pattern as a seperate pattern.
  • Tense
  • Mood
  • Evidentiality
    • Direct
    • Reportative
    • Assumptive
  • Voice
  • Aspect
  • Pattern
    • Punctual
    • Repetitive
    • Irregularitive
    • Fragmentative

Verb structure

Kjaxono uses a variety of prefixes and suffixes to conjugate verbs. The following chart shows the maximum amount of affixes and alterations a verb in Kjaxono can take in their usual order. Note that in everyday speech, most Kjaxono verbs do not take the amount of forms that the table may suggest.

Kjaxono verb template
pC TM EV STEM VP A pC
Polypersonal clitic Tense Evidentiality Voice Aspect Polypersonal clitic
Mood Pattern
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Only the parts in bold are required to be present within a Kjaxono verb. These are the most common seen colloquially, though in academic speech more inflection may be used.

Transitive scale (Objective scale)

Northern objective scale

Southern objective scale

Eastern objective scale

Intransitive scale (Nonobjective scale)

The intransitive scales are generally the most defective types of scales: they are much more simplified than their transitive counterparts.

Northern nonobjective scale

Southern nonobjective scale

Eastern nonobjective scale

Examples

Irregular verbs

To be

To have

To make

To say

To go

To see

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