Hngatil grammar

This article provides an overview of the grammar of the Hngatil language, a language spoken by 100,000 people in central and northwestern Azkali.

In Hngatil discussions, there are three different parts of speech, which are very different from any other extant language; verbs, simple nouns, and verbal nouns (nominals refer to nouns in general, covering the meaning of simple and verbal nouns). What would be a pronoun in another language can be interpreted as either belonging to the verb part of speech and also the simple noun part of speech. Hngatil is a verb heavy language, and there are more verbs in the language than there are nouns. This is not to say that Hngatil is a closed class language - new verbs, simple, and verbal nouns are constantly being created, but in general there are far more verbs than nominals. Due to the way verbal nouns in particular work, which significantly outnumber simple nouns in quantity, some have interpreted that most Hngatil nominals work more like verbs.

Verbal morphology

Verbs are the most inflecting part of speech in Hngatil. Verbs in Hngatil are constructed agglutinatively, comprising a stem, containing the core meaning of the verb, and a series of prefixes and suffixes that convey the inflection. Only the verb stem and classifiers are required, but is it very rare for only these two to be present. The order in which affixes and the verb stem occur in is regular, and is represented by the chart below.

Hngatil verb template

1	2	3	4
Mood prefix	Verb stem	Verb classifier suffix	Aspect suffix

One of the main features that seperates Hngatil from other languages in Ukilen is it's lack of grammatical tense. Tense-like information is conveyed via lexical and grammatical aspect, of which there are many that convey tense-like information, as well as context.

Mood

Hngatil verbs conjugate for 5 moods:

1. Indicative - used for factual statements from the viewpoint of the speaker, but most commonly used to confirm the statement as true when doubted
2. Conditional - used for actions that are dependent on other actions to occur - usually has a past implication
3. Optative - used for actions that the speaker wishes, assumes, or hopes to occur - usually has a future implication
4. Presumptive - used for actions that are presumed or theorized to happen (or have happened) based on prior evidence, or reasoning - usually has a future implication
5. Inferential - used for referring to actions that the speaker has not personally witnessed, and has inferred to have happened based on prior evidence, or reasoning. - usually has a past implication

Mood inflection

Indicative	∅ or nng(a)-
Conditional	dg(i(i))-
Optative	hng(u(u))-
Presumptive	llat'(a)-
Inferential	dbat'(a)-

Classifiers

Hngatil has a number of different suffixes that classify the physical nature, characteristics, and properties, if applicable, of the noun in the sentence. There are some fourteen different classifier suffixes in Hngatil. In addition, many common verbs have different stems based on the classifier suffix; Hngatil has no one verb stem meaning to cut - instead, there are 6 different verb stems for each classifier. Some different types of classifier share the same suffix; their precise meaning is usually clarified via a stem change, or surrounding. context.

There are two different modes that verbs are classified as. The primary mode are verbs that change their stem when using a classifier, and the secondary mode are verbs that do not. Many of the most common verbs are secondary mode verbs, but the majority are primary mode verbs.

The list of classifiers are shown below. Note that some classifiers may overlap in meaning with each other.

Name	Abbreviation	Affixes	Notes	Examples
Solid object	SO	-(a)typa(-)		Chair, wall, building, etc.
Liquid object	RO		Stem change	Water, milk, etc.
Elevated object	EO	-(a)ki(i)(-)		Chair, table, plane, kali, etc.
Slender object	SFI		Stem change	Rope, flagpole, etc.
Load object	LO	-(a)pi(i)(-)		Backpack, sack, etc.
Open container	OC		Stem change	Glass of water, handful of flour, etc.
Closed container	CC		Stem change	Box, closed water bottle, etc.
Animate object	AO	-(a)k'u(u)(-)		Kali, human, etc.
Semianimate object	SAO		Stem change	Pig, cows, crow
Inanimate object	IO	-(a)ŵa(-)		Terrain, building
Plural objects	PO	-(a)ki(i)t'(-)		Buildings, pigs, cows, persons, etc
Long tall object	LTO	-(a)ra(-)		Bow, flag, etc.
Smooth object	SMO	-(a)ddi(i)(-)	Stem change	Sphere, ice, glass, etc.
Rigid object	RO			Rock, mountains, etc.

The full paradigm for the verb stem tyangmai - meaning to cut, is shown, only with their classifier suffixes. From their forms the different stems can be deduced:

Classifier	Stem	Form	Pronunciation	Meaning
Solid object	ngmai	ngmaitypa	/ŋ͡mai.c͡pa/	to cut a solid object
Liquid object	hmuu	hmuutypa	/m̥u:.c͡pa/	to cut a liquid object, to seperate a liquid
Elevated object		hmuuki	/m̥u:.ki/	to cut an elevated object
Slender object	ma	maki	/ma.ki/	to cut a slender object
Load object		mapi	/ma.pi/	to cut a load object, to open a load object
Open container	nuu	nuupii	/nu:.pi:/	to cut an open container
Closed container	typ'atk'a	typ'atk'api	/c͡pʼa.t͡kʼa.pi/	to cut a closed container
Animate object		typ'atk'ak'u	/c͡pʼa.t͡kʼa.kʼu/	to cut an animate object, to stab
Semianimate object	naa	naak'u	/na.a.kʼu/	to cut a semianimate object, to butcher
Inanimate object	ku	kuŵa	/ku.ʍa/	to cut (an inanimate object)
Plural objects		kukit'	/ku.kitʼ/	to cut objects
Long tall object		kura	/ku.ɹ̥a/	to cut a long tall object
Smooth object	dangi	dangiddi	/daŋ.id:i/	to cut a smooth object
Rigid object	k'ug	k'ugddi	/kʼug.d:i/	to cut a rigid object

Aspect

Hngatil verbs conjugate for 17 aspects:

1. Perfective (Pfct.) - an action viewed completely, and without internal structure, i.e as a whole.
2. Momentane (Mnt.) - an action that suddenly occurs, lacking internal structure - often used to emphasize the suddenness of the action
3. Prospective (Prs.) - an action describing an event that occurs subsequently to a time or another verb - usually has a future implication
4. Habitual (Hb.) - an action which regularly, habitually, or customarily occurs
5. Progressive (Prg.) - an action that is ongoing and changing - usually has a present implication
6. Stative (St.) - an action that is ongoing and not changing - usually has a present implication
7. Gnomic (Gn.) - an action viewed as a general truth
8. Continuative (Cnt.) - an action that is still happening given to a reference time
9. Inchoative (Inch.) - an action that is the beginning of a new state of being
10. Cessative (Cs.) - an action that is the end of another state of being - usually has a past implication
11. Iterative (Iter.) - an action that is repeated, with particular focus on the nature of the repeated elements
12. Segmentative (Segm.) - an action that is repeated, emphasizing the action as a whole rather than the separate parts
13. Revisionary (Rev.) - an action that is being returned to from a different action or state
14. Serial (Sr.) - an action that is repeated, consisting of seperate distinct actions that can be analyzed either as a whole or as separate independent parts
15. Reversative (Rev.) - an action involving the change of direction or intent
16. Distributive (Dstr.) - an action that occurs or is done or happens to/by a group or location
17. Semiliterative (Slt.) - an action that is repeated many times over a short period of time, and is analyzed as a single action - often associated with vibrating, bending, trilling, shaking, or rolling objects, and often has a present implication

A list of all aspectual suffix forms is shown below;

Hngatil aspectual forms

Aspect	Pfct.	Mnt.	Prs.	Hb.	Prg.	St.	Gn.	Cnt.	Inch.	Cs.	Iter.	Segm.	Rev.	Sr.	Rev.	Dstr.	Slt.
Form	-(a)tya	-(a)kka	-(a)lu(u)	-(a)l	-(a)ya	-(a)tka	-(a)hnu(u)	-(a)r	-(a)wag	-(a)nnya	-(a)nu(u)	-(a)ba	-(a)t	-(a)kʼa	-(a)kpa	-(a)ng	-(a)p

In addition, combined with some common auxiliary verbs

Irregular and defective verbs

Many Hngatil verbs, particularly the most common verbs, are irregular and defective in aspects marking. Contrary to one what might expect, the verb meaning to be only can be conjugated for the perfective and progressive aspects, though it changes for other factors. In addition, the verb meaning to have is actually more irregular than to be, contrary to what one might assume.

To be (ty-arri)

The copula in Hngatil, arri, does not conjugate for classifiers. It is defective in aspectual marking, only marking for the perfective, momentane, progressive, stative, gnomic, and habitual aspects. It conjugates for all moods.

Arri forms in Hngatil

	Indicative mood	Conditional mood	Optative mood	Presumptive mood	Inferrential mood
Perfective aspect	arri	dgirri	hngirri	llarri	dbat'ak'
Momentane aspect	arru	dgirru	hngirru	llarru	dbaruk'
Progressive aspect	agbihri	dgibiri	ngubiu	llabiu	dbap'a
Stative aspect	ahriu	dgihru	ngibu	llabu	t'aubu
Gnomic aspect	arratpi	dgitupi	ngiud	lladud	t'audu
Habitual aspect	bian	dgikul	ngiiuul	lliduyul	dihru
Nonfinite forms
Auxiliary form	uurhngii
Infinitive form	tyarri
Agentive form	tyarrad
Gerund form	dyarrak'u
Participle forms
	Perfective aspect	Momentane aspect	Progressive aspect	Stative aspect	Gnomic aspect	Habitual aspect
Active voice	arrill	urrull	abull	ahrull	arrull	abul
Passive voice	uuriil	uurruul	abuul	ahruul	arruul	abuul

To have (tya-nna)

Nna is the verb root meaning to have. It conjugates for all several aspects: the perfective, momentane, progressive, stative, gnomic, habitual, and cessative, and classifiers, but it does not conjugate for mood at all. Nna is also a commonly used verb in forming compound aspects. Nna has the most forms out of any verb in Hngatil, with [xyz].

Nna forms in Hngatil

	SO	RO	EO	SFI	LO	OC	CC	AO	SAO	IO	PO	LTO	SMO	RO
Perfective aspect	nnganna	nngaka	nngaguyt	nalau	nngaludga	nngabda	nngagkib	ngma	ngmuuhra	krikpu	ngmal	ngmamman	tyap	dgag
Momentane aspect	nnatypa	katypa	gutypa	lautypa	lutypa	abtypa	agbitya	dybam	muutypa	hridyba	gadya	mmaty	tyaty	dyady
Progressive aspect	nnatypab	katypab	gutypab	lautypab	lutypab	abtypab	agbityab	dybamab	muutypab	hridybab	gadyab	mmatyp	tyatyb	dyadyb
Stative aspect	matayi	katayi	gutayi	latayi	lutayui	alutayui	agbutayui	dyutayui	muutaya	hrityui	gatayi	mmatayi	tyayi	dahri
Gnomic aspect	latayi		lutayi	latayi	lutayi	alutayi			umutayi	uhrutayi	layi		tayi	dayi
Habitual aspect	nguud					ngadai				hngatai			hratai	rrati
Cessative aspect	irraug
Nonfinite forms
Auxiliary form	irraug
Infinitive form	tyanna
Agentive form	nnad
Gerund form	dynaka
Participle forms
	Pfct.	Mnt.	St.	Gn.	Hb.	Cs.
Active voice	anna	annul	ahruul	abuul	aduulda	ab
Passive voice	unnu	unnul	uhruul	ubuudal	uuduulda	udbaudu

Infinitive form

The infinitive in Hngatil is formed by two processes: first, if the verb uses long vowels, they are changed to short vowels, and if the verb uses short vowels, the length remains the same. Secondly, the prefix ty(a)- is added to the beginning of the verb. The infinitive of to be is tyarri, the infinitive of to have is tyanna, and the infinitive of to give is tyahmida.

Nominal morphology

It has been interpreted by some that Hngatil is a language that lacks most nouns in the truest sense - a vast majority of nouns are derived from verbs plus a nominalizing suffix, with only the most common nouns lacking this marking. In most Hngatil grammars, these two classes of nouns are split into two different parts of speech; nouns derived from verbs are called verbal nouns and nouns that are not are called simple nouns.

One aspect of noun morphology supporting the analysis of two nominal parts of speech is that there is different morphology depending on if a given nominal is a verbal noun or a simple noun, though in general nominal morphology is relatively lackluster in comparison to verbal morphology. In addition, pronouns are reportedly nonexistant, with the idea being conveyed by a verb meaning something like "to be me, to be you", etc.

Across both simple nouns and verbal nouns, there are several features that signal them as subordinate to verbs

Simple noun morphology

Simple nouns in Hngatil are unusual cross-linguistically in that with the exception of inverse case, only objects are marked with cases. In Hngatil, grammatical case describes the object's relation to the subject. Except for the inverse case, all cases are marked using prefixes. Simple nouns have eight cases (technically nine, if one includes the always unmarked direct case) that can be declined for - they are the inverse case (denoting that the true subject of the sentence is different than what would be implied on the person hierarchy), the lative case (used when the object is moving to the subject), the adelative case (denoting the object as moving away from the vague vicinity where the subject is), the ablative case (denoting the object as moving specifically from inside the subject, or sometimes moving away from the specific area where the subject is located at), the essive case (denoting that the object as a temporary quality of the subject; more often than not, this can be used to turn nouns into adjectives), the distal-originative case (denoting the fact that the subject is moving towards the object which is marked, and that the object is far away from the subject), the proximal-originative case (denoting the fact that the subject is moving towards the object which is marked, and that the object is close to the subject), and the infinitive case (denoting the object as an abstract concept, or having indeterminate properties, position, shape, etc). The inverse case is marked on the first noun of a sentence.

The following chart shows the forms of each case:

Hngatil case

Inverse case	-(a)lla
Lative case	l(a)-
Adelative case	hn(a)-
Ablative case	bb(a)-
Essive case	tp'(a)-
DIstal-originative case	dyb(a)-
Proximal-originative case	gb(a)-
Infinitive case	gg(a)-

Simple nouns take no marking for number - that grammatical concept is conveyed by using numerals. To convey a singular number, the numeral rratid (one) is used. To convey a plural number, the word ggatyuprihn (consisting of the numeral for one hundred, tyuprihn, plus the prefix gg(a)-, the infinitive case, to convert it into an abstract concept) is used. To convey a paucal number, the word ggaŵai (consisting of the numeral for seven, ŵai, plus the prefix gg(a)-) is used. Simple nouns also take no marking for definiteness per se, but the determiner kpiuta is often placed before the noun to express that concept.

Verbal noun morphology

Verbal nouns work remarkably different than simple nouns. Verbal nouns are composed of a combined noun class and nominalizing suffix. Verbal nouns take no marking for case, unlike simple nouns. Verbal nouns are more often than not derived from verbs, but some are not, yet still are treated as verbal nouns due to the mandatory suffix they take. A vast majority of verbal nouns lack the vowel /i/ and its long variant, but this is not a universal rule, demonstrated easily by the Hngatil word for verbal nouns, ddingurru.

Verbal nouns also share general phonological features, as well — all are required to end with vowels. Most verbal nouns start with either /d/, /k/, /k͡p/, or /a/,

There are 18 noun classes that verbal nouns mark for. These are the suffixes:

Combined noun class and nominalizing suffix

Noun class	Form
Kali	-nnu(u)
Water	-bgu(u)
Inanimate	-lu(u)
Semianimate	-ldbu(u)
Animate nonbiotic	-tp'au(u)
Animate biotic	-ddau(u)
Food	-dgau(u)
Solid object	-nyau(u)
Liquid object	-nngau(u)
Elevated object	-rau(u)
Slender object	-nngau(u)
Load object	-ta
Open container	-hmai(i)n
Closed container	-dabi(i)
Long tall object	-arri(i)u(u)
Smooth object	-ap'au(u)
Rigid object	-hnahnu(u)
Concept, other	-rru(u)

Pronouns

			Direct case	Inverse case
Singular	1p		dyuu	p'aralla
	2p		bbali	p'atuulla
	3p	Masculine	uty'i	ity'illa
		Feminine/neutral	tpaga	typ'anglla
Plural	1p		p'iituu	baulla
	2p		ggaklii
	3p	Masculine	aty'a	adyailla
		Feminine/neutral	nmirrit	nidilla

Syntax and morphosyntactical alignment

Hngatil is one of the few languages cross-linguistically speaking with a direct-inverse morphosyntactic alignment. In a transitive sentence, the marked inverse case is used when the object outranks the subject on the person hierarchy, and the unmarked direct case is used when the subject outranks the object on the person hierarchy. In a transitive sentence, the argument with the higher role on the person hierarchy is assumed to be the subject.

Hngatil person hierarchy

First person singular and plural	Second person singular and plural inclusive	Second person singular and plural exclusive	Third person singular and plural proximal and proximate	Third person singular and plural distal and obviate	Indefinite first/second/third person singular and plural	First/second/third person reflexive	Inanimate objects
Kalis, lightning, wind, palm trees	Humans, Kaneeds, Qoxonit, Kjarelen, Kali infants/children, cacti, all other plants, pets	Midsized animals, children in general	Insects	Small animals	Natural forces besides wind and lightning	Abstract concepts

Word order

There is no strict word order in Hngatil, though generally verbs come first in a clause.