Tova language: Difference between revisions

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'''Tova''' is a Tovic language spoken primarily in the South of Alloti. It is one of the official languages of [[Alloti]], alongside [[Alhi language|Alhi]] and [[Kes language|Kes]]. There are approximately 40 million native speakers, and ~~including non~~-~~native speakers, there are 45 million~~ speakers. Tova has influenced Kes and Alhi, introducing many loanwords into both languages.

'''Tova''' is a Tovic language spoken primarily in the South of Alloti. It is one of the official languages of [[Alloti]], alongside [[Alhi language|Alhi]] and [[Kes language|Kes]]. There are approximately 40 million native speakers, and 5 milion second-language speakers. Tova has influenced Kes and Alhi, introducing many loanwords into both languages.

Tova is not related to any other language spoken in Alloti, making it an isolate. Tova has its own script, natively known as ''Imujastunu'', it is an abugida ~~with an inherent vowel, but has initial, medial, and final forms, using a connector called a~~ ''~~jaśadan~~.'' Tova was once written in the Oulaj script, which is the native script for Alhi and Kes, but due to preservation and political efforts, Imujastunu has prevailed as the primary script.

Tova is not related to any other language spoken in Alloti, making it an isolate. Tova has its own script, natively known as ''Imujastunu'', it is an abugida''.'' Tova was once written in the Oulaj script, which is the native script for Alhi and Kes, but due to preservation and political efforts, Imujastunu has prevailed as the primary script.

Tova has an unusual nonconcatenative morphological system, using 2, 3, and 4-consonant root systems to form verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. Much of the vocabulary of Tova is from derivation, and words that ~~are~~ loaned are instead calqued.

Tova has an unusual nonconcatenative morphological system, using 2, 3, and 4-consonant root systems to form verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. Much of the vocabulary of Tova is from derivation, and words that would usually be loaned are instead calqued.

== Name of the language ==

Line 215:

The accusative affixes are appended onto the ends of verbs, so Tova can be described as being polypersonal, as verbs are inflected for subjects and direct objects. The accusative affixes are required to be on a verb if a verb has a direct object. The genitives are essentially possessives.

An example of the accusative affix: ''~~Tallavi~~'''vi''' ~~ússúlessit~~.'' 'I like the keyboard.' Since ''ússúlessit'' 'the keyboard' is inanimate and singular, the ''-Vvi'' affix is appended to the end of the verb.

An example of the accusative affix: ''Talinavi'''vi''' ussúlessit.'' 'I like the keyboard.' Since ''ússúlessit'' 'the keyboard' is inanimate and singular, the ''-Vvi'' affix is appended to the end of the verb.

=== Roots ===

Line 248:

==== Noun cases ====

The nine noun cases in Tova are ''nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, comitative, inessive, adessive, ablative, and vocative''.

The nine noun cases in Tova are ''nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, comitative, inessive, adessive, ablative, and vocative''. They can be organized into argument cases, the genitive, locative cases, and the vocative.

===== ~~The nominative case~~ =====

===== Argument cases =====

~~The nominative case is~~ used ~~for subjects of verbs. For copulative verbs (like ''tana'' '~~to ~~be, exist'),~~ the ~~objects~~ of ~~them are put in the nominative case~~.

These cases listed below are used to mark the arguments of a verb.

~~=====~~ The ~~accusative~~ case ~~=====~~

'''The nominative case'''

~~The accusative case is used for the direct objects of transitive verbs.~~

~~=====~~ The dative case ~~=====~~

The nominative case is used for subjects of verbs. For copulative verbs (like ''tana'' 'to be, exist'), the objects of them are put in the nominative case. This case is unmarked.

The dative case is used for the indirect objects of transitive verbs, or the arguments of intransitive verbs. Generally, it corresponds to ''''to NOUN'''<nowiki/>'.

'''The accusative case'''

The accusative case is used for the direct objects of transitive verbs. This case is marked with a ''-C*it'' affix, and the ''C*'' causes gemination if attached to a word that ends in a consonant. For example: ''jaśadan'' 'connector' → ''jaśadan'''nit''''' 'connector (ACC.)'

'''The dative case'''

The dative case is used for the indirect objects of transitive verbs, or the arguments of intransitive verbs. Generally, it corresponds to '<nowiki/>'''to NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. This case is marked with a ''-Ci'' affix, and the ''C'' is taken from the consonant closest to the end of the word that it is applied to. For example: ''tosónu'' 'relating to an observatory' → ''tosó'''n'''u'''ni''''' 'relating to an observatory (DAT.)'

===== The genitive case =====

The genitive case is used for the indication of possession. The order of possession is ''possessed noun in the definite'' + ''possesser in the genitive''. For example: ''úmmújes'' ''~~źatnanik~~'' 'A cleaner's pen' / 'The pen of a cleaner'.

The genitive case is used for the indication of possession. The order of possession is ''possessed noun in the definite'' + ''possesser in the genitive''. For example: ''úmmújes'' ''źatnanak'' 'A cleaner's pen' / 'The pen of a cleaner'. The affix is ''-Cak''. Like in the example, ''źatnan'' → ''źatn'''a'''n'''ak'''''.

===== Locative cases =====

The cases listed below are used to mark location or movement of nouns.

'''The comitative case'''

The comitative case corresponds to '<nowiki/>'''with NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. It is used for accompaniment or instrumental usage, like ''with him'' and ''with a pen'', respectively. The affix is ''-Cil''; ''dhusur → dhusur'''il'''''.

'''The inessive case'''

The inessive case is a locative case that indicates location inside or in the noun that the case is applied to. The affix is ''-Cós''; ''dhusuru → dhusu'''r'''u'''rós'''''.

~~===== The comitative case =====~~

'''The adessive case'''

~~The comitative case corresponds to~~ ''''~~with NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. It is used for accompaniment or instrumental usage, like ''with him'' and ''with a pen~~''~~, respectively.~~

~~=====~~ The ~~inessive case =====~~

The adessive case is a locative case that indicates location at, upon, or around the noun that the case is applied to. The affix is ''-Car''; ''dhusuru → dhusururar.''

~~The inessive~~ case is a locative case that indicates location ~~inside~~ or in the noun that the case is applied to.

~~=====~~ The ~~adessive~~ case ~~=====~~

'''The ablative case'''

~~The adessive case is a locative case that indicates location at, upon, or around the noun that the case is applied to.~~

~~===== The ablative case =====~~

The ablative case is a case that indicated motion away from something, but also a location that is ''from'' the noun it is applied to. The affix is ''-Vźu''; ''jonón'' 'house' ''→ jonónóźu'' 'from the house'.

The ablative case is a case that indicated motion away from something, but also a location that is ''from'' the noun it is applied to.

===== The vocative case =====

The vocative case is a case that is used for direct addressing of the noun that it is applied to. It is more common to see this case be used in religious texts, but there is still modern usage.

The vocative case is a case that is used for direct addressing of the noun that it is applied to. It is more common to see this case be used in religious texts, but there is still modern usage. The affix is ''-Ca''; ''itulsan'' 'Lord' → ''itulsana'' 'O Lord!'.

==== Pluralization ====

Plurals in Tova have, depending on how one counts, seven different patterns, and they are dependent on the sounds of a word.

{| class="wikitable"

|+Table of plurals

!

!Singular

!Plural

!Condition

!Rule

|-

!Ia

|''muluk''

|''muluku''

|'''...VC'''

|'''...VC+V'''

|-

!Ib

|''mujus''

|''mujusú''

|'''...VF'''

|'''...VF+V́'''

|-

!IIa

|''múseru''

|''múserunu''

|'''...CV'''

|'''...CV+nV'''

|-

!IIb

|''ukfásu''

|''ukfásunú''

|'''...FV'''

|'''...FV+nV́'''

|-

!IIIa

|''itulsan''

|''utlasan''

|'''V1C1V2C2C3...'''

|'''V2C1C2aC3...'''

|-

!IIIb

|''takúseç''

|''atkúseç''

|'''C1V1C2V2...'''

|'''V1C1C2V1...'''

|-

!IIIc

|''itulavsan''

|''utlavsan''

|'''V1C1V2C2V3...'''

|'''V2C1C2V3...'''

|}

===== Type ''I'': Vowel-consonant final sequence =====

'''''Ia'': Non-fricative final consonant'''

If a noun / adjective ends in a consonant, and if that consonant is not a fricative, then the vowel closest to the end of the word will be added at the end as the plural.

For example: The plural of ''muluk'' 'end' is ''muluku'' 'ends'. Since the final vowel in ''muluk'' is /u/, that vowel is added at the end for the plural.

'''''Ib'': Fricative final consonant'''

If a noun / adjective ends in a consonant, and if that consonant is a fricative, the vowel closest to end of the word will be added at the end as the plural, but it will be lengthened.

For example: ''mujus'' 'write' → ''mujusú'' 'writes'.

===== Type ''II'': Consonant-vowel final sequence =====

'''''IIa'': Non-fricative + vowel final sequence'''

If a noun / adjective ends in a sequence of a non-fricative and then a vowel, the affix applied is ''-nV'', where ''V'' is the closest vowel to the end of the word.

For example: ''múseru'' 'relating to a torture device' → ''múserunu'' 'relating to a torture device (used for agreeing with nouns in the plural)'.

'''''IIb'': Fricative + vowel final sequence'''

If a noun / adjective ends in a sequence of a fricative and then a vowel, the affix applied is ''-nV́'', where ''V́'' is the closest vowel to the end of the word, but lengthened.

For example: ''ukfásu'' 'relating to an act of hearing' → ''ukfásunú'' 'relating to an act of hearing (used for agreeing with nouns in the plural)'.

===== Type ''III'': Different initial sequences =====

'''''IIIa'': Initial VCVCC sequence'''

If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence that is V1C1V2C2C3, the pluralization pattern is V2C1C2aC3.

For example: ''itulsan'' 'god' → ''utlasan'' 'gods'.

'''''IIIb'': Initial CVCV sequence'''

If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence of C1V1C2V2, the pluralization pattern is V1C1C2V1.

For example: ''takúseç'' 'crane' → ''atkúseç'' 'cranes'

'''''IIIc'': Initial VCVCV sequence'''

If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence of V1C1V2C2V3, the pluralization pattern is V2C1C2V3.

For example: ''itulavsan'' 'greatest god' → ''utlavsan'' 'greatest gods'.

==== Definiteness ====

The feature of the ''definite'' in Tova is used to specify that something is identifiable. There are two ways of forming the definite in Tova.

===== ''A'': Beginning consonant =====

If a word begins in a consonant, like ''laskan'' 'ruler', the rule is to take the vowel closest to the start of the word, which is /a/ in this example, and prefix it to the word, then, the first consonant is geminated. So, by these rules, the definite of ''laskan'' 'ruler' is ''allaskan'' 'the ruler'. The length of vowels is not preserved in the definite affix, it will always be short.

===== ''B'': Beginning vowel =====

If a word begins in a vowel, like ''umjás'' 'act of writing', the rule is to take the consonant closest to the start of the word, which is /m/ here, and then it is prefixed to the word. By these rules, the definite of ''umjás'' 'act of writing' is ''mumjás'' 'the act of writing'.

===== Order of application =====

If a word is going to be both ''plural'' and ''definite'' (and by default, in the unmarked nominative), the pluralization occurs first and then it is definitized. For example, the true definite plural of ''itulsan'' is ''tutlasan''. If a noun is plural, definite, and in a case that is not the nominative, the order is ''pluralization → definitization'' → ''case application''. For example, the plural, definite, and accusative of ''takúseç'' is ''tatkúseççit''.

=== Adjectives and adverbs (modifiers) ===

In Tova, most adjectives and adverbs are derived from nouns, which themselves are mostly derived from roots. Adjectives and adverbs are not distinct in their forms, so the rest of this section will refer to both ''adjectives'' and ''adverbs'' as '''modifiers'''.

==== Derivation ====

Most modifiers are formed with a simple ''-u'' suffix from the noun that they are derived from. For example, ''dh-s-r'' – relating to goodness → ''dhusur'' 'good (n.)' → ''dhusuru'' 'good (adj.)'. This is a simple rule and there are no exceptions or irregularities.

==== Inflection ====

Modifiers, when used like adjectives, are pluralized just like nouns, and they agree with the nouns that they modify. For example, from the section above, the plural of the modifier ''dhusuru'' is '''''dhusurunu'''''.

Adjectival modifiers take the same cases as nouns, and behave exactly like nouns in terms of inflection.

Here is a table showing an example declension (excluding possessive forms) of an adjectival modifier.

{| class="wikitable"

|+Declension of ''tulvi'' 'liking'

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" |Indefinite

! colspan="2" |Definite

|-

!Singular

!Plural

!Singular

!Plural

|-

!Nominative

|''tulvi''

|''tulvini''

|''uttulvi''

|''uttulvini''

|-

!Accusative

|''tulvit''

|''tulvinit''

|''uttulvit''

|''uttulvinit''

|-

!Dative

|''tulviv''

|''tulvinin''

|''uttulviv''

|''uttulvinin''

|-

!Genitive

|''tulvivak''

|''tulvininak''

|''uttulvivak''

|''uttulvininak''

|-

!Comitative

|''tulvivil''

|''tulvininil''

|''uttulvivil''

|''uttulvininil''

|-

!Inessive

|''tulvivós''

|''tulvininós''

|''uttulvivós''

|''uttulvininós''

|-

!Adessive

|''tulvivar''

|''tulvininar''

|''uttulvivar''

|''uttulvininar''

|-

!Ablative

|''tulviźu''

|''tulviniźu''

|''uttulviźu''

|''uttulviniźu''

|-

!Vocative

|''tulviva''

|''tulvinina''

|''uttulviva''

|''uttulvinina''

|}

''Plural forms are colloquially pronounced with no vowel between the /v/ and /n/. '''Uttulvini''' would be pronounced like '''uttulvni'''.''

=== Verbs ===

Tovan verbs are arguably the most complicated part of Tovan grammar. Tova is highly synthetic, and verbs conjugate for a multitude of tenses, aspects, moods, persons, numbers, genders, and voices. Tova is also polypersonal as verbs have their subjects and direct objects marked on them.

As is typical for verbs in nearly every language, Tovan verbs express actions and states of being. They undergo inflection for the following categories:

* '''Tense''': non-past and past

* '''Aspect''': non-habitual and habitual

* '''Mood''': indicative, subjunctive, and imperative

* '''Person''': first, second, and third

* '''Number''': singular and plural

* '''Gender''': (only in the third person singular) animate and inanimate

* '''Voice''': active and passive

* '''Arguments''': subject and direct object

These categories apply specifically to the first verb form of roots, like ''lasana'' 'to speak' from the root ''l-s-n'' 'relating to speaking'. Other forms have different meanings, the second form of the root ''l-s-n'' is ''lassana'' which means 'to cause to speak'. Some forms are used specifically for other aspects like the perfect or progressive.

Verbs are formed from roots, and each root has, at most, 9 different forms. The different forms are: ''basic, causative, progressive, reciprocal, intensive, reflexive, perfect, inchoative,'' and ''cessative''. Some forms may be combined with others, like a ''causative-progressive'' and a ''causative-reflexive''.

==== Verbal inflection ====

This section will cover each part that a verb conjugates for.

===== Person, number, and gender =====

Every verb in Tova conjugates for three different persons, two different numbers, and in the third-person singular, two genders. Tova is pro-drop for both the subject and direct object.

{| class="wikitable"

|+Sample conjugation of ''lasana'' 'to speak'

! colspan="2" |

!Singular

!Plural

|-

! colspan="2" |First person

|''lasani''

|''lusun''

|-

! colspan="2" |Second person

|''lasalni''

|''lasuntu''

|-

! rowspan="2" |Third person

!Animate

|''lasana''

| rowspan="2" |''lusanad''

|-

!Inanimate

|''lasanu''

|}

''These conjugations are in the active voice, indicative mood, non-habitual aspect, and non-past tense. They are also subject-conjugated.''

====== The first person ======

The first person, ''ja'' and ''uvas'' (singular and plural, respectively) are used to refer to the speaker, or in the plural, the speaker plus at least one more person. In religious contexts, especially in the holy text of [[Tutlavás]], it is common to see a ''majestic plural'' be employed when it is God who is speaking. Verb conjugations are altered to match this shift in number.

====== The second person ======

The second person, ''elek'' and ''as'' (sg, pl), are used to refer to the person that the speaker is talking to. Tova has two levels of formality, depending on the number. ''Elek'' is used for familiar or informal situations, ''As'' is used for formal or respectful situations.

===== The third person =====

The third person, ''en'', ''id, őv, an'' (sg. human, sg. nonhuman, sg. inan, pl) are used to refer to neither the speaker or the person being talked to, but for other parties.

* ''En'': Used to talk about a single human. May be translated like ''he'' or ''she''.

* ''Id'': Used to talk about a single non-human, like a [[Kalikind|Kali]] or [[Kaneedkind|Kaneed]], or anything that is grammatically animate. Usage of this pronoun for non-humans has been criticized, claiming it is 'disrespectful' to non-humans. May be translated like ''he'', ''she'', ''they'', or ''it''.

* ''Őv'': Used to talk about any grammatically inanimate object. May be translated like ''it''.

* ''An'': Used to talk about more than one object of any animacy. May be translated like ''they''.

Even though there are three third-person singular pronouns, there are only ''two'' third-person singular conjugations, inanimate and animate. The animate conjugation is used for both ''en'' and ''id''.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-'''Tova''' is a Tovic language spoken primarily in the South of Alloti. It is one of the official languages of [[Alloti]], alongside [[Alhi language|Alhi]] and [[Kes language|Kes]]. There are approximately 40 million native speakers, and including non-native speakers, there are 45 million speakers. Tova has influenced Kes and Alhi, introducing many loanwords into both languages.
+'''Tova''' is a Tovic language spoken primarily in the South of Alloti. It is one of the official languages of [[Alloti]], alongside [[Alhi language|Alhi]] and [[Kes language|Kes]]. There are approximately 40 million native speakers, and 5 milion second-language speakers. Tova has influenced Kes and Alhi, introducing many loanwords into both languages.
-Tova is not related to any other language spoken in Alloti, making it an isolate. Tova has its own script, natively known as ''Imujastunu'', it is an abugida with an inherent vowel, but has initial, medial, and final forms, using a connector called a ''jaśadan.'' Tova was once written in the Oulaj script, which is the native script for Alhi and Kes, but due to preservation and political efforts, Imujastunu has prevailed as the primary script.
+Tova is not related to any other language spoken in Alloti, making it an isolate. Tova has its own script, natively known as ''Imujastunu'', it is an abugida''.'' Tova was once written in the Oulaj script, which is the native script for Alhi and Kes, but due to preservation and political efforts, Imujastunu has prevailed as the primary script.
-Tova has an unusual nonconcatenative morphological system, using 2, 3, and 4-consonant root systems to form verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. Much of the vocabulary of Tova is from derivation, and words that are loaned are instead calqued.
+Tova has an unusual nonconcatenative morphological system, using 2, 3, and 4-consonant root systems to form verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. Much of the vocabulary of Tova is from derivation, and words that would usually be loaned are instead calqued.
 == Name of the language ==
@@ Line 215: / Line 215: @@
 The accusative affixes are appended onto the ends of verbs, so Tova can be described as being polypersonal, as verbs are inflected for subjects and direct objects. The accusative affixes are required to be on a verb if a verb has a direct object. The genitives are essentially possessives.
-An example of the accusative affix: ''Tallavi'''vi''' ússúlessit.'' 'I like the keyboard.' Since ''ússúlessit'' 'the keyboard' is inanimate and singular, the ''-Vvi'' affix is appended to the end of the verb.
+An example of the accusative affix: ''Talinavi'''vi''' ussúlessit.'' 'I like the keyboard.' Since ''ússúlessit'' 'the keyboard' is inanimate and singular, the ''-Vvi'' affix is appended to the end of the verb.
 === Roots ===
@@ Line 248: / Line 248: @@
 ==== Noun cases ====
-The nine noun cases in Tova are ''nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, comitative, inessive, adessive, ablative, and vocative''.
+The nine noun cases in Tova are ''nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, comitative, inessive, adessive, ablative, and vocative''. They can be organized into argument cases, the genitive, locative cases, and the vocative.
-===== The nominative case =====
+===== Argument cases =====
-The nominative case is used for subjects of verbs. For copulative verbs (like ''tana'' 'to be, exist'), the objects of them are put in the nominative case.
+These cases listed below are used to mark the arguments of a verb.
-===== The accusative case =====
+'''The nominative case'''
-The accusative case is used for the direct objects of transitive verbs.
-===== The dative case =====
+The nominative case is used for subjects of verbs. For copulative verbs (like ''tana'' 'to be, exist'), the objects of them are put in the nominative case. This case is unmarked.
-The dative case is used for the indirect objects of transitive verbs, or the arguments of intransitive verbs. Generally, it corresponds to ''''to NOUN'''<nowiki/>'.
+'''The accusative case'''
+The accusative case is used for the direct objects of transitive verbs. This case is marked with a ''-C*it'' affix, and the ''C*'' causes gemination if attached to a word that ends in a consonant. For example: ''jaśadan'' 'connector' → ''jaśadan'''nit''''' 'connector (ACC.)'
+'''The dative case'''
+The dative case is used for the indirect objects of transitive verbs, or the arguments of intransitive verbs. Generally, it corresponds to '<nowiki/>'''to NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. This case is marked with a ''-Ci'' affix, and the ''C'' is taken from the consonant closest to the end of the word that it is applied to. For example: ''tosónu'' 'relating to an observatory' → ''tosó'''n'''u'''ni''''' 'relating to an observatory (DAT.)'
 ===== The genitive case =====
-The genitive case is used for the indication of possession. The order of possession is ''possessed noun in the definite'' + ''possesser in the genitive''. For example: ''úmmújes'' ''źatnanik'' 'A cleaner's pen' / 'The pen of a cleaner'.
+The genitive case is used for the indication of possession. The order of possession is ''possessed noun in the definite'' + ''possesser in the genitive''. For example: ''úmmújes'' ''źatnanak'' 'A cleaner's pen' / 'The pen of a cleaner'. The affix is ''-Cak''. Like in the example, ''źatnan'' → ''źatn'''a'''n'''ak'''''.
+===== Locative cases =====
+The cases listed below are used to mark location or movement of nouns.
+'''The comitative case'''
+The comitative case corresponds to '<nowiki/>'''with NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. It is used for accompaniment or instrumental usage, like ''with him'' and ''with a pen'', respectively. The affix is ''-Cil''; ''dhusur → dhusur'''il'''''.
+'''The inessive case'''
+The inessive case is a locative case that indicates location inside or in the noun that the case is applied to. The affix is ''-Cós''; ''dhusuru → dhusu'''r'''u'''rós'''''.
-===== The comitative case =====
+'''The adessive case'''
-The comitative case corresponds to ''''with NOUN'''<nowiki/>'. It is used for accompaniment or instrumental usage, like ''with him'' and ''with a pen'', respectively.
-===== The inessive case =====
+The adessive case is a locative case that indicates location at, upon, or around the noun that the case is applied to. The affix is ''-Car''; ''dhusuru → dhusururar.''
-The inessive case is a locative case that indicates location inside or in the noun that the case is applied to.
-===== The adessive case =====
+'''The ablative case'''
-The adessive case is a locative case that indicates location at, upon, or around the noun that the case is applied to.
-===== The ablative case =====
+The ablative case is a case that indicated motion away from something, but also a location that is ''from'' the noun it is applied to. The affix is ''-Vźu''; ''jonón'' 'house' ''→ jonónóźu'' 'from the house'.
-The ablative case is a case that indicated motion away from something, but also a location that is ''from'' the noun it is applied to.
 ===== The vocative case =====
-The vocative case is a case that is used for direct addressing of the noun that it is applied to. It is more common to see this case be used in religious texts, but there is still modern usage.
+The vocative case is a case that is used for direct addressing of the noun that it is applied to. It is more common to see this case be used in religious texts, but there is still modern usage. The affix is ''-Ca''; ''itulsan'' 'Lord' → ''itulsana'' 'O Lord!'.
+==== Pluralization ====
+Plurals in Tova have, depending on how one counts, seven different patterns, and they are dependent on the sounds of a word.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Table of plurals
+!
+!Singular
+!Plural
+!Condition
+!Rule
+|-
+!Ia
+|''muluk''
+|''muluku''
+|'''...VC'''
+|'''...VC+V'''
+|-
+!Ib
+|''mujus''
+|''mujusú''
+|'''...VF'''
+|'''...VF+V́'''
+|-
+!IIa
+|''múseru''
+|''múserunu''
+|'''...CV'''
+|'''...CV+nV'''
+|-
+!IIb
+|''ukfásu''
+|''ukfásunú''
+|'''...FV'''
+|'''...FV+nV́'''
+|-
+!IIIa
+|''itulsan''
+|''utlasan''
+|'''V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>...'''
+|'''V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>aC<sub>3</sub>...'''
+|-
+!IIIb
+|''takúseç''
+|''atkúseç''
+|'''C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>2</sub>...'''
+|'''V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>1</sub>...'''
+|-
+!IIIc
+|''itulavsan''
+|''utlavsan''
+|'''V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>3</sub>...'''
+|'''V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>3</sub>...'''
+|}
+===== Type ''I'': Vowel-consonant final sequence =====
+'''''Ia'': Non-fricative final consonant'''
+If a noun / adjective ends in a consonant, and if that consonant is not a fricative, then the vowel closest to the end of the word will be added at the end as the plural.
+For example: The plural of ''muluk'' 'end' is ''muluku'' 'ends'. Since the final vowel in ''muluk'' is /u/, that vowel is added at the end for the plural.
+'''''Ib'': Fricative final consonant'''
+If a noun / adjective ends in a consonant, and if that consonant is a fricative, the vowel closest to end of the word will be added at the end as the plural, but it will be lengthened.
+For example: ''mujus'' 'write' → ''mujusú'' 'writes'.
+===== Type ''II'': Consonant-vowel final sequence =====
+'''''IIa'': Non-fricative + vowel final sequence'''
+If a noun / adjective ends in a sequence of a non-fricative and then a vowel, the affix applied is ''-nV'', where ''V'' is the closest vowel to the end of the word.
+For example: ''múseru'' 'relating to a torture device' → ''múserunu'' 'relating to a torture device (used for agreeing with nouns in the plural)'.
+'''''IIb'': Fricative + vowel final sequence'''
+If a noun / adjective ends in a sequence of a fricative and then a vowel, the affix applied is ''-nV́'', where ''V́'' is the closest vowel to the end of the word, but lengthened.
+For example: ''ukfásu'' 'relating to an act of hearing' → ''ukfásunú'' 'relating to an act of hearing (used for agreeing with nouns in the plural)'.
+===== Type ''III'': Different initial sequences =====
+'''''IIIa'': Initial VCVCC sequence'''
+If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence that is V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>, the pluralization pattern is V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>aC<sub>3</sub>.
+For example: ''itulsan'' 'god' → ''utlasan'' 'gods'.
+'''''IIIb'': Initial CVCV sequence'''
+If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence of C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, the pluralization pattern is V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>1</sub>.
+For example: ''takúseç'' 'crane' → ''atkúseç'' 'cranes'
+'''''IIIc'': Initial VCVCV sequence'''
+If a noun / adjective begins in a sequence of V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>3</sub>, the pluralization pattern is V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>3</sub>.
+For example: ''itulavsan'' 'greatest god' → ''utlavsan'' 'greatest gods'.
+==== Definiteness ====
+The feature of the ''definite'' in Tova is used to specify that something is identifiable. There are two ways of forming the definite in Tova.
+===== ''A'': Beginning consonant =====
+If a word begins in a consonant, like ''laskan'' 'ruler', the rule is to take the vowel closest to the start of the word, which is /a/ in this example, and prefix it to the word, then, the first consonant is geminated. So, by these rules, the definite of ''laskan'' 'ruler' is ''allaskan'' 'the ruler'. The length of vowels is not preserved in the definite affix, it will always be short.
+===== ''B'': Beginning vowel =====
+If a word begins in a vowel, like ''umjás'' 'act of writing', the rule is to take the consonant closest to the start of the word, which is /m/ here, and then it is prefixed to the word. By these rules, the definite of ''umjás'' 'act of writing' is ''mumjás'' 'the act of writing'.
+===== Order of application =====
+If a word is going to be both ''plural'' and ''definite'' (and by default, in the unmarked nominative), the pluralization occurs first and then it is definitized. For example, the true definite plural of ''itulsan'' is ''tutlasan''. If a noun is plural, definite, and in a case that is not the nominative, the order is ''pluralization → definitization'' → ''case application''. For example, the plural, definite, and accusative of ''takúseç'' is ''tatkúseççit''.
+=== Adjectives and adverbs (modifiers) ===
+In Tova, most adjectives and adverbs are derived from nouns, which themselves are mostly derived from roots. Adjectives and adverbs are not distinct in their forms, so the rest of this section will refer to both ''adjectives'' and ''adverbs'' as '''modifiers'''.
+==== Derivation ====
+Most modifiers are formed with a simple ''-u'' suffix from the noun that they are derived from. For example, ''dh-s-r'' – relating to goodness → ''dhusur'' 'good (n.)' → ''dhusuru'' 'good (adj.)'. This is a simple rule and there are no exceptions or irregularities.
+==== Inflection ====
+Modifiers, when used like adjectives, are pluralized just like nouns, and they agree with the nouns that they modify. For example, from the section above, the plural of the modifier ''dhusuru'' is '''''dhusurunu'''''.
+Adjectival modifiers take the same cases as nouns, and behave exactly like nouns in terms of inflection.
+Here is a table showing an example declension (excluding possessive forms) of an adjectival modifier.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Declension of ''tulvi'' 'liking'
+! rowspan="2" |
+! colspan="2" |Indefinite
+! colspan="2" |Definite
+|-
+!Singular
+!Plural
+!Singular
+!Plural
+|-
+!Nominative
+|''tulvi''
+|''tulvini''
+|''uttulvi''
+|''uttulvini''
+|-
+!Accusative
+|''tulvit''
+|''tulvinit''
+|''uttulvit''
+|''uttulvinit''
+|-
+!Dative
+|''tulviv''
+|''tulvinin''
+|''uttulviv''
+|''uttulvinin''
+|-
+!Genitive
+|''tulvivak''
+|''tulvininak''
+|''uttulvivak''
+|''uttulvininak''
+|-
+!Comitative
+|''tulvivil''
+|''tulvininil''
+|''uttulvivil''
+|''uttulvininil''
+|-
+!Inessive
+|''tulvivós''
+|''tulvininós''
+|''uttulvivós''
+|''uttulvininós''
+|-
+!Adessive
+|''tulvivar''
+|''tulvininar''
+|''uttulvivar''
+|''uttulvininar''
+|-
+!Ablative
+|''tulviźu''
+|''tulviniźu''
+|''uttulviźu''
+|''uttulviniźu''
+|-
+!Vocative
+|''tulviva''
+|''tulvinina''
+|''uttulviva''
+|''uttulvinina''
+|}
+''Plural forms are colloquially pronounced with no vowel between the /v/ and /n/. '''Uttulvini''' would be pronounced like '''uttulvni'''.''
+=== Verbs ===
+Tovan verbs are arguably the most complicated part of Tovan grammar. Tova is highly synthetic, and verbs conjugate for a multitude of tenses, aspects, moods, persons, numbers, genders, and voices. Tova is also polypersonal as verbs have their subjects and direct objects marked on them.
+As is typical for verbs in nearly every language, Tovan verbs express actions and states of being. They undergo inflection for the following categories:
+* '''Tense''': non-past and past
+* '''Aspect''': non-habitual and habitual
+* '''Mood''': indicative, subjunctive, and imperative
+* '''Person''': first, second, and third
+* '''Number''': singular and plural
+* '''Gender''': (only in the third person singular) animate and inanimate
+* '''Voice''': active and passive
+* '''Arguments''': subject and direct object
+These categories apply specifically to the first verb form of roots, like ''lasana'' 'to speak' from the root ''l-s-n'' 'relating to speaking'. Other forms have different meanings, the second form of the root ''l-s-n'' is ''lassana'' which means 'to cause to speak'. Some forms are used specifically for other aspects like the perfect or progressive.
+Verbs are formed from roots, and each root has, at most, 9 different forms. The different forms are: ''basic, causative, progressive, reciprocal, intensive, reflexive, perfect, inchoative,'' and ''cessative''. Some forms may be combined with others, like a ''causative-progressive'' and a ''causative-reflexive''.
+==== Verbal inflection ====
+This section will cover each part that a verb conjugates for.
+===== Person, number, and gender =====
+Every verb in Tova conjugates for three different persons, two different numbers, and in the third-person singular, two genders. Tova is pro-drop for both the subject and direct object.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Sample conjugation of ''lasana'' 'to speak'
+! colspan="2" |
+!Singular
+!Plural
+|-
+! colspan="2" |First person
+|''lasani''
+|''lusun''
+|-
+! colspan="2" |Second person
+|''lasalni''
+|''lasuntu''
+|-
+! rowspan="2" |Third person
+!Animate
+|''lasana''
+| rowspan="2" |''lusanad''
+|-
+!Inanimate
+|''lasanu''
+|}
+<sup>''These conjugations are in the active voice, indicative mood, non-habitual aspect, and non-past tense. They are also subject-conjugated.''</sup>
+====== The first person ======
+The first person, ''ja'' and ''uvas'' (singular and plural, respectively) are used to refer to the speaker, or in the plural, the speaker plus at least one more person. In religious contexts, especially in the holy text of [[Tutlavás]], it is common to see a ''majestic plural'' be employed when it is God who is speaking. Verb conjugations are altered to match this shift in number.
+====== The second person ======
+The second person, ''elek'' and ''as'' (sg, pl), are used to refer to the person that the speaker is talking to. Tova has two levels of formality, depending on the number. ''Elek'' is used for familiar or informal situations, ''As'' is used for formal or respectful situations.
+===== The third person =====
+The third person, ''en'', ''id, őv, an'' (sg. human, sg. nonhuman, sg. inan, pl) are used to refer to neither the speaker or the person being talked to, but for other parties.
+* ''En'': Used to talk about a single human. May be translated like ''he'' or ''she''.
+* ''Id'': Used to talk about a single non-human, like a [[Kalikind|Kali]] or [[Kaneedkind|Kaneed]], or anything that is grammatically animate. Usage of this pronoun for non-humans has been criticized, claiming it is 'disrespectful' to non-humans. May be translated like ''he'', ''she'', ''they'', or ''it''.
+* ''Őv'': Used to talk about any grammatically inanimate object. May be translated like ''it''.
+* ''An'': Used to talk about more than one object of any animacy. May be translated like ''they''.
+Even though there are three third-person singular pronouns, there are only ''two'' third-person singular conjugations, inanimate and animate. The animate conjugation is used for both ''en'' and ''id''.