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| == Morphology == | | == Morphology == |
| There are seven different parts of speech that are commonly identified by linguists in Azkali: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adpositions, conjunctions, and interjections. It is generally not possible to identify which part of speech an Azkali word belongs to by itself. However, a large amount of words belong to multiple parts of speech.
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| Azkali is considered an open class language. This even applies to pronouns, and even conjugation and grammatical markers, in addition to other types of words.
| | === Overview === |
| | | Azkali is a language isolate, and it's grammar is extremely distinct in comparison languages in its surroundings, such as Oikan and Baphian. Colloquial Azkali, the variety of Azkali which will be discussed in this article, is extremely regular — there are no irregular verbs and very few irregular nouns. Azkali, like Baphian, is an agglutinative language; Azkali is notable in the fact that Azkali nouns can become extremely long. For example, the noun ''arizentzirozatzitouzana'' means "as y'all's few tables" (definite). |
| This section will cover the morphology of all Azkali parts of speech.
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| | |
| === Nouns === | |
| Azkali nouns are overtly declined for six grammatical cases (the ergative, absolutive, possessive, privative, dative, and instrumental) and three numbers (the singular, paucal, and plural). Azkali nouns are constructed agglunatively, contrasting with verbs. In addition, Azkali also features a robust inverse number system, though it is only regularly used in formal speech. | |
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| Affixes occur in a relatively set order, displayed in the below noun template chart:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Azkali noun template
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| !Content
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| |(Definite article)
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| !NOUN ROOT
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| |Case
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| |Number
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| |Comparison
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| |(Definite article)
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| |Inverse number
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| |-
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| !Slot
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| !'''(1a)'''
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| !2
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| !'''3'''
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| !'''4'''
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| !5
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| !'''(1b)'''
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| !6
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| |}
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| | |
| ==== Case ====
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| [[File:Ergative alignment.svg|thumb|283x283px|A diagram highlighting ergative alignment. '''A''' is the subject of a transitive verb, '''O''' is the object of a transitive verb, and '''S''' is the subject of an intransitive verb. '''S''' and '''O''' are marked in the absolutive case, and '''A''' is marked in the ergative case.]]
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| Case inflection in Azkali is fairly straightforward; the affixes only change depending on the lack of presence of a root final vowel. There are six grammatical cases in Azkali. The ergative case is used for subjects of transitive verbs. The absolutive case is used for subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs. The possessive case is used for direct ownership. The privative case is used to mark the lack of direct ownership. The dative case is used to mark the indirect object of an action, as well as the purpose of an action. In addition, in extremely formal varieties of Azkali, the dative case is occasionally used to denote a noun that is owned by the noun in the phrase with the possessive case. Finally, the instrumental case is used to mark that the noun is the instrument in which the action is achieved, or occurs; the instrumental case can be used for both physical objects, or ideas and concepts.
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| The ergative and absolutive cases are not regularly used with nouns, instead being only used for pronouns. The other four cases, however, are productive in regular nouns.
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| Out of all cases used in colloquial Azkali, the dative case is by far the most uncommon. Its use is largely limited to school and work environments and set phrases. Its usage is declining in domestic Azkali dialects but remains somewhat common in international Azkali dialects, particularly in Sunteria.
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| In formal varieties of Azkali, the possessive case is used more like a genitive case; the distinction here is that in most forms of Azkali, the possessive case is used purely in the context of possession. Contrastingly, in formal varieties, it's use has broadened to include generic modification. In colloquial forms of Azkali, generic modification is marked by the adposition ''haoz,'' meaning "of".
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| The following chart shows each case suffix.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Azkali suffixes for grammatical case
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| !Case
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| !Vowel ending
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| !Consonant ending
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| |-
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| !Ergative
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| ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ∅
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| |-
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| !Absolutive
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| |-
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| !Possessive
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| | -k
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| | -ek
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| |-
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| !Privative
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| | -z
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| | -az
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| |-
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| !Dative
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| | -ti
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| | -eti
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| |-
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| !Instrumental
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| | -gez
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| | -ez
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| |}
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| Shown below are several examples of these cases in use for various words, and their respective meanings. Note the usage of (-∅) for nouns rendered in the ergative and absolutive case.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Examples of grammatical case with three Azkali words
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| ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
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| ! colspan="3" |Word
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| |-
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| !''akimateya'' - (a) relative
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| (as in family)
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| !''nedhathu -''
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| (a) message
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| !''koroz'' - (a)
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| bridge
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="6" |Case
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| !Ergative
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| | colspan="3" rowspan="2" |akimateya(-∅)
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| ''(relative)''
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| |-
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| !Absolutive
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| |-
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| !Possessive
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| |akimateyak
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| ''(a relative's (...))''
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| |nedhathuk
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| ''(a message's (...))''
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| |korozek
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| ''(a bridge's (...))''
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| |-
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| !Privative
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| |akimateyaz
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| ''(lacking a relative)''
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| |nedhathuz
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| ''(lacking a message)''
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| |korozaz
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| ''(lacking a bridge)''
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| |-
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| !Dative
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| |akimateyati
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| ''(to a relative)''
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| |nedhathuti
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| ''(to a message)''
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| |korozeti
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| ''(to a bridge)''
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| |-
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| !Instrumental
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| |akimateyagez
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| ''(done with a relative)''
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| |nedhathugez
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| ''(done with a message)''
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| |korozez
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| ''(done with a bridge)''
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| |}
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| Some nouns, particularly common culturally important nouns in [[Turruism]], have irregular case forms. A non exhaustive list of irregular nouns, and their respective forms, follows:
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| * ''Tuhakoi'' (the sun) ''- Tuhakoi, Tuhakola, Tzerakaiz, Tukahoti, Tuhakoigez''<ref>''Tuhakoi'' is inherently definite, so it does not need the definite article.</ref>
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| * ''Agnetok'' (hill) - ''Agnetok, Agnetokak, Agnetoaz, Agnetai, Agnitegaz''
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| * ''Turru'' (earth) - ''Turru, Kacha Turru, Za Turru, Gatzurru, Gaziturru''
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| * ''Ra'' (air) - ''Ra, Rak, Raiz, Rai, Reis''
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| * ''Dharran'' (knowledge) - ''Dharran, Dharrangak, Dharranaz, Dharrenati, Dharregez''
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| ==== Number and inverse number ====
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| Number inflection always follows, when even present, case. As mentioned before, there are three grammatical numbers in Azkali - the singular, which is unmarked, the paucal, and plural. The following chart shows each number suffix; one should note that when used in combination with the dative case, the number affixes take the vowel ending form, due to the presence of a vowel at the end of the dative affix.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| !Number
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| !Vowel ending
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| !Consonant aside from "tz" ending
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| !"Tz" ending
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| |-
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| !Singular
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| ! colspan="3" | ∅
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| |-
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| !Paucal
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| | -tz
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| | -etz
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| | -et
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| |-
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| !Plural
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| | -rek
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| | colspan="2" | -erek
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| |}
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| For nouns that end with "tz", a special affix for the paucal number exists. For example, the paucal version of the word ''leizitz'', meaning lizard, is ''leizitzet'', not the expected ''leizitzetz''.
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| An inverse number system exists in Azkali. For the most part, it is only regularly used in formal speech and common phrases, but it can be seen regularly even in informal speech in Allotian and Otzeipao dialects of Azkali. Inverse number is mostly used on nouns with inherent grammatical number, i.e (a pair of) ''socks'' (with a dual implication), ''cattle'' (with a plural implication), (a pair of) ''scissors'' (with a plural implication), and so on. It denotes that the grammatical number of the noun is different than to what the implication is. The inverse number markers change depending on the noun's actual number, and the noun ending, and if the marker is after the definite article. For nouns with a singular inherent grammatical number, the ''singular'' is used, and so on.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Inverse number markers in Azkali
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| !
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| !Vowel ending
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| !Consonant ending
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| !After the definite article
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| |-
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| !Singular
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| | -l
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| | -al
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| | -li
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| |-
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| !Paucal
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| | -tsi
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| | -atsi
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| | -tsi
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| |-
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| !Plural
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| | -rezk
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| | -arezk
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| | -tsezk
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| |}
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| To complete a phrase using inverse number markers, the numeral denoting the ''actual'' number in the form of a numeral is placed after the noun.
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| === Pronouns ===
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| In Azkali, pronouns are often combined with determiners to form the pronoun part of speech.
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| ==== Personal and reflexive pronouns ====
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| The following table shows each personal pronoun in Azkali, declining for case and number. In addition, there are also reflexive pronouns included; while not a case in itself, in most Azkali grammars, the reflexive pronouns are included with the personal ones.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Personal pronouns
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| ! colspan="9" |Singular
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |
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| !Ergative
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| !Absolutive
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| !Possessive
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| !Privative
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| !Dative
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| !Instrumental
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| !Reflexive
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |1st
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| |go
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| | colspan="2" |en
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| |goz
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| |get
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| |gokoz
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| |go ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |2nd
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| | colspan="2" |tu
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| |tuek
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| |tukoz
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| |tet
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| |tukoz
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| |tu ten
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |3rd
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| !<small>masculine</small>
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| | colspan="2" |mai
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| |maik
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| |maiz
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| | rowspan="3" |het
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| | rowspan="3" |hekoz
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| | rowspan="3" |ha ten
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| |-
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| !<small>feminine</small>
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| |kut
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| |kurez
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| |kutek
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| |keiz
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| |-
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| !<small>neutral</small>
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| | colspan="2" |hakel
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| |harek
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| |heiz
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| |-
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| ! colspan="9" |Paucal
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |1st
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| |tzo
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| | colspan="2" |tzen
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| |tzeiz
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| | colspan="2" |tzego
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| |tzo ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |2nd
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| | colspan="2" |tzu
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| |tzuk
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| |tzuiz
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| | colspan="2" |tzeutu
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| |tzu ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |3rd
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| |tzare
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| |rutzez
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| |tzak
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| |tzaiz
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| | colspan="2" |tzere
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| |tzare ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="9" |Plural
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |1st
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| |thou
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| | colspan="2" |then
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| |thaoz
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| | colspan="2" |theo
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| |theo ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |2nd
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| |the
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| |thoru
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| |ethu
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| |tzauz
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| | colspan="2" |teo
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| |teo ten
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2" |3rd
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| | colspan="2" |thin
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| |ethi
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| |ethez
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| | colspan="2" |keo
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| |keo ten
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| |}
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| The ''neutral pronouns'' work essentially the same as epicene pronouns in other languages. They are used when it is unclear of the person's gender, no specification is needed, and so on.
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| === Determiners ===
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| Most determiners appear to have evolved from remnants of older Azkali pronouns; specifically, it appears that they evolved from old gendered paucal and plural third person pronouns (in the ergative and possessive cases). They have in modern times lost their meaning as pronouns and instead have evolved into determiners.
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| === Verbs ===
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| Like most agglutinative languages, Azkali features very few irregular verbs: between four and five in most dialects (though some, particularly Southern Azkali dialects, have as many as twenty irregular verbs). Verbs conjugate for 3 tenses, ''far past, past'', and ''nonpast'', and 4 moods, ''indicative, conditional, hypothetical,'' and ''imperative'', though in two verbs, ''to be'' and ''to have'', marking for person exists. The auxiliary verb ''itu,'' conveying a future tense, also changes depending on person.
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| A majority of verbs in Azkali are derived from Proto-Azkali, or have been taken from [[Oikan language|Oikan]], [[Loremese language|Loremese]], or Hngatil.
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| ==== Conjugation ====
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| ''See also: [[Contemporary Azkali conjugation]]''
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| Compared to older forms of Azkali, especially Contemporay Azkali conjugation, modern Azkali conjugation is extremely simple. There is only one conjugation pattern and it is shown below:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Azkali conjugation
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| ! colspan="2" |
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| !Vowel ending
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| !Consonant ending
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Indicative
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| !Far past
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| | -z
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| | -iz
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | colspan="2" | -u
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| ! colspan="2" | ∅
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Conditional
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| !Far past
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| | -n
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| | -in
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | colspan="2" | -i
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | -n
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| | -o
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Hypothetical
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| !Far past
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| | -ta
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| | -(a)ka
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | rowspan="2" | -r
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| | -au
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | -aur
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="2" |Imperative
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| !Soft
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| | -mai
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| | -ai
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| |-
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| !Hard
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| | -k
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| | -aik
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| |}
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| For the far past hypothetical form of consonant ending verbs, -''ka'' is used for when the verb ends with ''s'' or ''z''; elsewhere, -''aka'' is used. The soft imperative causes any fricatives to turn into ''h;'' affricates are not affected by this rule. Here are two examples of these forms with the verbs ''narila'', to play, ''heitiz'', to stand, and ''nain'', to recite (from memory):
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! colspan="2" |
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| !''narila''
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| to play
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| !''heitiz''
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| to stand
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| !''nain''
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| to recite
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Indicative
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| !Far past
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| |narilaz
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| |heitiziz
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| |nainiz
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| |-
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| !Past
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| |narilau
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| |heitizu
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| |nainu
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| |narila
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| |heitiz
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| |nain
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Conditional
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| !Far past
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| |narilan
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| |heitizin
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| |nainin
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| |-
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| !Past
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| |narilai
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| |heitizi
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| |naini
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| |narilan
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| |heitizo
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| |naino
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Hypothetical
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| !Far past
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| |narilata
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| |heitizka
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| |nainaka
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | rowspan="2" |nariltar
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| |heitizau
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| |nainau
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| |heitizaur
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| |nainaur
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="2" |Imperative
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| !Soft
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| |narilamai
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| |heitihai
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| |nainai
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| |-
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| !Hard
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| |narilak
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| |heitizaik
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| |nainaik
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| |}And these are the non-finite forms of all verbs:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Azkali non-finite conjugation
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| !Infinitive, gerund
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| |(verb) ''te''
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| |-
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| !Past, far past participle
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| |(past form of verb) ''nehiz''
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| |-
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| !Non past participle
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| |(non past form of verb) ''naiz''
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| |-
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| !Agentive
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| | -(n)a
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| |}
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| | |
| ===== ''Itu'' =====
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| ''Itu'', as stated previously, is an auxiliary verb that conveys a future tense. Itu, unlike any other regular verb, conjugates for the full range of persons (i.e the first, second, and third person, plus singular, paucal, and plural grammatical numbers). It is also used in the conjugation of periphrastic, and especially compound tenses. In Contemporary Azkali, itu was a very irregular verb meaning ''to go'', but it's meaning shifted to a standard future marker, losing it's original meaning.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Forms of ''itu''
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| ! colspan="3" |Singular
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| ! colspan="3" |Paucal
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| ! colspan="3" |Plural
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| |-
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| !1p
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| !2p
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| !3p
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| !1p
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| !2p
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| !3p
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| !1p
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| !2p
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| !3p
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| |-
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| |itu
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| |iru
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| |izku
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| |igo
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| |iko
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| |iro
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| |riga
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| |ritu
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| |rizku
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| |}
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| | |
| ===== ''Isan'' =====
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| ''Isan'' is the Azkali verb meaning to be. It is the most commonly used verb in the language. Along with ''huka'', to do, it is one of the only verbs that conjugate in regards to person. In addition, isan can also be used in the form of an auxiliary verb in the context of periphrastic conjugation, and particularly with compound tenses. Isan is one of the four or five irregular verbs in Azkali that are in use in most dialects.
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| These are the specific forms of isan:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! colspan="2" |
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| !1p, 2p, 3p singular
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| !1p, 2p, 3p plural
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Indicative
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| !Far past
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| | colspan="2" | ezatz
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | etz
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| | itez
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | isan
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| | izatz
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Conditional
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| !Far past
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| | colspan="2" | naiz
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | colspan="2" | etzain
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | colspan="2" | irasan
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Hypothetical
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| !Far past
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| | colspan="2" | amaiz
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | colspan="2" | atain
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | colspan="2" | arai
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="2" |Imperative
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| !Hard
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| | colspan="2" |isan
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| |-
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| !Soft
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| | colspan="2" |itho
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| |}
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| | |
| ===== ''Huka'' =====
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| ''Huka'' is the verb ''to do''. It is irregular, and marks for person, unlike any other verb besides ''isan''.
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| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| ! colspan="2" |
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| !1p, 2p, 3p singular
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| !1p, 2p, 3p plural
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Indicative
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| !Far past
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| | colspan="2" | hesak
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | rotz
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| | rezi
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | huka
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| | hezi
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| |-
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| ! rowspan="3" |Conditional
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| !Far past
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| | colspan="2" | hez
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| |-
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| !Past
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| | colspan="2" | heintz
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| |-
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| !Non past
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| | colspan="2" | irahintz
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="3" |Hypothetical
| |
| !Far past
| |
| | colspan="2" | usak
| |
| |-
| |
| !Past
| |
| | colspan="2" | utz
| |
| |-
| |
| !Non past
| |
| | colspan="2" | una
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="2" |Imperative
| |
| !Hard
| |
| | colspan="2" |huka
| |
| |-
| |
| !Soft
| |
| | colspan="2" |uha
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Periphrastic conjugation ====
| |
| The following table shows a large amount of common periphrastic tenses in Azkali.
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |+Some examples of periphrastic conjugation
| |
| !Tense
| |
| !Form
| |
| !Examples
| |
| !Observations
| |
| |-
| |
| !Present perfect
| |
| |nonpast + ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka huka (have done)''
| |
| * ''hataiz huka (have lost)''
| |
| * ''patzegi huka (have worked)''
| |
| |Particularly in Southern Azkali dialects, this form has been reanalyzed as a sort of near past tense. Consequently, The already existing near past form is used as a general past tense alongside the already conjugated past tense.
| |
| |-
| |
| !Present habitual
| |
| |nonpast + gerund of ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataiz hukanoiz (usually lose)''
| |
| * ''nakuz hunakoiz (usually see)''
| |
| * ''nakusa hunakoiz (usually think)''
| |
| |Particularly in Southern Azkali dialects, the present habitual tense is being reinterpreted as a perfective aspect; consequentially, the ordinary present tense is becoming an imperfective aspect. This phenomenon is being noticed particularly surrounding Atzoguiriki.
| |
| |-
| |
| !Past habitual
| |
| |past + gerund of ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataizu hukanoiz (usually lost)''
| |
| * ''nakuzu hunakoiz (usually saw)''
| |
| * ''nakusau hunakoiz (usually thought)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Future
| |
| |nonpast + ''itu''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataiz itu (will lose)''
| |
| * ''nakuz itu (will see)''
| |
| * ''nakusa itu (will think)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Near past
| |
| |past + synthetic past of ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataizu rotz (just lost)''
| |
| * ''nakuzu rotz (just saw)''
| |
| * ''nakusau rotz (just thought)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Future in the past
| |
| |past + ''itu''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hukau itu (would do)''
| |
| * ''hataizu itu (would lose)''
| |
| * ''patzegiu itu (would work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Future perfect in the past
| |
| |past + ''huka'' + ''itu''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hukau huka itu (would have done)''
| |
| * ''hataizu huka itu (would have lost)''
| |
| * ''patzegiu huka itu (would have worked)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Hypothetic
| |
| |nonpast + ''isan''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataiz isan (if lose)''
| |
| * ''nakuz isan (if see)''
| |
| * ''nakusa isan (if think)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Past potential
| |
| |past, conditional mood + ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataizi huka (if lost)''
| |
| * ''nakuzi huka (if saw)''
| |
| * ''nakusai huka (if thought)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Present potential
| |
| |present, conditional mood + ''huka''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''hataizo huka (if lose)''
| |
| * ''nakuzo huka (if see)''
| |
| * ''nakusan huka (if think)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Positive volition
| |
| |present participle + ''nasa (to complete)''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka te nasa (want to do)''
| |
| * ''hataiz te nasa (want to lose )''
| |
| * ''patzegi te nasa (want to work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Negative volition
| |
| |present participle + ''ketz'' + infinitive of ''nasa (to complete)''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka ketz te nasa (don't want to do)''
| |
| * ''hataiz ketz te nasa (don't want to lose )''
| |
| * ''patzegi ketz te nasa (don't want to work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Obligation in the present
| |
| |verb + ''nasa''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka nasa (must do)''
| |
| * ''hataiz nasa (must lose)''
| |
| * ''patzegi nasa (must work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Obligation in the future
| |
| |verb + ''nasa'' + ''itu''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka nasa itu (must do)''
| |
| * ''hataiz nasa itu (must lose)''
| |
| * ''patzegi nasa itu (must work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |-
| |
| !Ability
| |
| |verb + ''nasa'' + ''isan''
| |
| |
| |
| * ''huka nasa isan (can do)''
| |
| * ''hataiz nasa isan (can lose)''
| |
| * ''patzegi nasa isan (can work)''
| |
| |
| |
| |}
| |