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Hngatil grammar: Difference between revisions

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This article provides an overview of the grammar of the [[Hngatil language]], a language spoken by 100,000 people in central and northwestern [[Azkali]].
This article provides an overview of the grammar of the [[Hngatil language]], a language spoken by 100,000 people in central and northwestern [[Azkali]].
In Hngatil discussions, there are three different parts of speech, which are very different from any other extant language; verbs, simple nouns, and verbal nouns (nominals refer to nouns in general, covering the meaning of simple and verbal nouns). What would be a pronoun in another language can be interpreted as either belonging to the verb part of speech and also the simple noun part of speech. Hngatil is a verb heavy language, and there are more verbs in the language than there are nouns. This is not to say that Hngatil is a closed class language - new verbs, simple, and verbal nouns are constantly being created, but in general there are far more verbs than nominals. Due to the way verbal nouns in particular work, which significantly outnumber simple nouns in quantity, some have interpreted that most Hngatil nominals work more like verbs.


== Verbal morphology ==
== Verbal morphology ==
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=== Classifiers ===
=== Classifiers ===
Hngatil has a number of different suffixes that classify the physical nature, characteristics, and properties, if applicable, of the noun in the sentence. There are some fourteen different classifier suffixes in Hngatil. In addition, many common verbs have different stems based on the classifier suffix; Hngatil has no one verb stem meaning ''to cut'' - instead, there are 6 different verb stems for each classifier. Some different types of classifier share the same suffix; their precise meaning is usually clarified via a stem change, or surrounding. context.
Hngatil has a number of different suffixes that classify the physical nature, characteristics, and properties, if applicable, of the noun in the sentence. There are some fourteen different classifier suffixes in Hngatil. In addition, many common verbs have different stems based on the classifier suffix; Hngatil has no one verb stem meaning ''to cut'' - instead, there are 6 different verb stems for each classifier. Some different types of classifier share the same suffix; their precise meaning is usually clarified via a stem change, or surrounding. context.
There are two different ''modes'' that verbs are classified as. The primary mode are verbs that change their stem when using a classifier, and the secondary mode are verbs that do not. Many of the most common verbs are secondary mode verbs, but the majority are primary mode verbs.


The list of classifiers are shown below. Note that some classifiers may overlap in meaning with each other.  
The list of classifiers are shown below. Note that some classifiers may overlap in meaning with each other.  
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|Rock, mountains, etc.
|Rock, mountains, etc.
|}
|}
The full paradigm for the verb stem ''ngmai'' - meaning ''to cut'', is shown, only with their classifier suffixes;
The full paradigm for the verb stem ''tyangmai'' - meaning ''to cut'', is shown, only with their classifier suffixes. From their forms the different stems can be deduced:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Classifier
!Stem
!Form
!Pronunciation
!Meaning
|-
!Solid object
|ngmai
|ngmaitypa
|/ŋ͡mai.c͡pa/
|to cut a solid object
|-
!Liquid object
| rowspan="2" |hmuu
|hmuutypa
|/m̥u:.c͡pa/
|to cut a liquid object, to seperate a liquid
|-
!Elevated object
|hmuuki
|/m̥u:.ki/
|to cut an elevated object
|-
!Slender object
| rowspan="2" |ma
|maki
|/ma.ki/
|to cut a slender object
|-
!Load object
|mapi
|/ma.pi/
|to cut a load object, to open a load object
|-
!Open container
|nuu
|nuupii
|/nu:.pi:/
|to cut an open container
|-
!Closed container
| rowspan="2" |typ'atk'a
|typ'atk'api
|/c͡pʼa.t͡kʼa.pi/
|to cut a closed container
|-
!Animate object
|typ'atk'ak'u
|/c͡pʼa.t͡kʼa.kʼu/
|to cut an animate object, to stab
|-
!Semianimate object
|naa
|naak'u
|/na.a.kʼu/
|to cut a semianimate object, to butcher
|-
!Inanimate object
| rowspan="3" |ku
|kuŵa
|/ku.ʍa/
|to cut (an inanimate object)
|-
!Plural objects
|kukit'
|/ku.kitʼ/
|to cut objects
|-
!Long tall object
|kura
|/ku.ɹ̥a/
|to cut a long tall object
|-
!Smooth object
|dangi
|dangiddi
|/daŋ.id:i/
|to cut a smooth object
|-
!Rigid object
|k'ug
|k'ugddi
|/kʼug.d:i/
|to cut a rigid object
|}


=== Aspect ===
=== Aspect ===
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# '''Reversative''' '''(Rev.)''' - an action involving the change of direction or intent
# '''Reversative''' '''(Rev.)''' - an action involving the change of direction or intent
# '''Distributive''' '''(Dstr.)''' - an action that occurs or is done or happens to/by a group or location
# '''Distributive''' '''(Dstr.)''' - an action that occurs or is done or happens to/by a group or location
# '''Semiliterative (Slt.)''' - an action that is repeated many times over a short period of time, and is analyzed as a single action - often associated with vibrating, bending, or rolling objects, and often has a present implication
# '''Semiliterative (Slt.)''' - an action that is repeated many times over a short period of time, and is analyzed as a single action - often associated with vibrating, bending, trilling, shaking, or rolling objects, and often has a present implication
A list of all aspectual suffix forms is shown below;
A list of all aspectual suffix forms is shown below;
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 192: Line 283:
| -(a)ba
| -(a)ba
| -(a)t
| -(a)t
| -(a)k'a
| -(a)kʼa
| -(a)kpa
| -(a)kpa
| -(a)ng
| -(a)ng
| -(a)p
| -(a)p
|}
|}
In addition, combined with some common auxiliary verbs


=== Irregular and defective verbs ===
=== Irregular and defective verbs ===
Many Hngatil verbs, particularly the most common verbs, are irregular and defective in aspects marking. Contrary to one what might expect, the verb meaning to be only can be conjugated for the perfective and progressive aspects, though it changes for other factors.  
Many Hngatil verbs, particularly the most common verbs, are irregular and defective in aspects marking. Contrary to one what might expect, the verb meaning to be only can be conjugated for the perfective and progressive aspects, though it changes for other factors. In addition, the verb meaning to have is actually more irregular than to be, contrary to what one might assume.
 
==== To be (ty-arri) ====
The copula in Hngatil, ''arri'', does not conjugate for classifiers. It is defective in aspectual marking, only marking for the perfective, momentane, progressive, stative, gnomic, and habitual aspects. It conjugates for all moods.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Arri forms in Hngatil
!
!Indicative
mood
!Conditional
mood
!Optative
mood
!Presumptive
mood
! colspan="2" |Inferrential
mood
|-
!Perfective
aspect
|arri
|dgirri
|hngirri
|llarri
| colspan="2" |dbat'ak'
|-
!Momentane
aspect
|arru
|dgirru
|hngirru
|llarru
| colspan="2" |dbaruk'
|-
!Progressive
aspect
|agbihri
|dgibiri
|ngubiu
|llabiu
| colspan="2" |dbap'a
|-
!Stative
aspect
|ahriu
|dgihru
|ngibu
|llabu
| colspan="2" |t'aubu
|-
!Gnomic
aspect
|arratpi
|dgitupi
|ngiud
|lladud
| colspan="2" |t'audu
|-
!Habitual
aspect
|bian
|dgikul
|ngiiuul
|lliduyul
| colspan="2" |dihru
|-
! colspan="7" |Nonfinite forms
|-
!Auxiliary form
| colspan="6" |uurhngii
|-
!Infinitive form
| colspan="6" |tyarri
|-
!Agentive form
| colspan="6" |tyarrad
|-
!Gerund form
| colspan="6" |dyarrak'u
|-
! colspan="7" |Participle forms
|-
!
!Perfective
aspect
!Momentane
aspect
!Progressive
aspect
!Stative
aspect
!Gnomic
aspect
!Habitual
aspect
|-
!Active voice
|arrill
|urrull
|abull
|ahrull
|arrull
|abul
|-
!Passive voice
|uuriil
|uurruul
|abuul
|ahruul
|arruul
|abuul
|}
 
==== To have (tya-nna) ====
Nna is the verb root meaning ''to have''. It conjugates for all several aspects: the perfective, momentane, progressive, stative, gnomic, habitual, and cessative, and classifiers, but it does not conjugate for mood at all. Nna is also a commonly used verb in forming compound aspects. Nna has the most forms out of any verb in Hngatil, with [xyz].
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nna forms in Hngatil
!
!SO
!RO
!EO
!SFI
!LO
!OC
!CC
!AO
!SAO
!IO
!PO
!LTO
!SMO
!RO
|-
!Perfective
aspect
|nnganna
|nngaka
|nngaguyt
|nalau
|nngaludga
|nngabda
|nngagkib
|ngma
|ngmuuhra
|krikpu
|ngmal
|ngmamman
|tyap
|dgag
|-
!Momentane
aspect
|nnatypa
|katypa
|gutypa
|lautypa
|lutypa
|abtypa
|agbitya
|dybam
|muutypa
|hridyba
|gadya
|mmaty
|tyaty
|dyady
|-
!Progressive
aspect
|nnatypab
|katypab
|gutypab
|lautypab
|lutypab
|abtypab
|agbityab
|dybamab
|muutypab
|hridybab
|gadyab
|mmatyp
|tyatyb
|dyadyb
|-
!Stative
aspect
|matayi
|katayi
|gutayi
|latayi
|lutayui
|alutayui
|agbutayui
|dyutayui
|muutaya
|hrityui
|gatayi
|mmatayi
|tyayi
|dahri
|-
!Gnomic
aspect
| colspan="2" |latayi
|lutayi
|latayi
|lutayi
| colspan="3" |alutayi
|umutayi
|uhrutayi
| colspan="2" |layi
|tayi
|dayi
|-
!Habitual
aspect
| colspan="5" |nguud
| colspan="4" |ngadai
| colspan="3" |hngatai
|hratai
|rrati
|-
!Cessative
aspect
| colspan="14" |irraug
|-
! colspan="15" |Nonfinite forms
|-
!Auxiliary form
| colspan="14" |irraug
|-
!Infinitive form
| colspan="14" |tyanna
|-
!Agentive form
| colspan="14" |nnad
|-
!Gerund form
| colspan="14" |dynaka
|-
! colspan="15" |Participle forms
|-
!
!Pfct.
!Mnt.
!St.
!Gn.
!Hb.
!Cs.
! colspan="8" rowspan="3" |
|-
!Active voice
|anna
|annul
|ahruul
|abuul
|aduulda
|ab
|-
!Passive voice
|unnu
|unnul
|uhruul
|ubuudal
|uuduulda
|udbaudu
|}


==== To be (arri) ====
==== To give (tya-hmida) ====
The copula in Hngatil, ''arri'', can only conjugate for the perfective, habitual, progressive, and gnomic aspects, but it conjugates for all of the moods and all of the classifiers.


==== To have (nna) ====
=== Auxiliary form ===


==== To give (hmida) ====
==== Uses of the auxiliary form ====


=== Infinitive ===
=== Infinitive form ===
The infinitive in Hngatil is formed by two processes: first, if the verb uses long vowels, they are changed to short vowels, and if the verb uses short vowels, the length remains the same. Secondly, the prefix ''ty(a)-'' is added to the beginning of the verb.
The infinitive in Hngatil is formed by two processes: first, if the verb uses long vowels, they are changed to short vowels, and if the verb uses short vowels, the length remains the same. Secondly, the prefix ''ty(a)-'' is added to the beginning of the verb. The infinitive of to be is ''tyarri'', the infinitive of to have is ''tyanna'', and the infinitive of to give is ''tyahmida''.
 
=== Agentive form ===
 
=== Gerundive form ===
 
=== Participle forms ===


== Nominal morphology ==
== Nominal morphology ==
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=== Verbal noun morphology ===
=== Verbal noun morphology ===
Verbal nouns work remarkably different than simple nouns. Verbal nouns are composed of a combined noun class and nominalizing suffix. Verbal nouns take no marking for case, unlike simple nouns.  
Verbal nouns work remarkably different than simple nouns. Verbal nouns are composed of a combined noun class and nominalizing suffix. Verbal nouns take no marking for case, unlike simple nouns. Verbal nouns are more often than not derived from verbs, but some are not, yet still are treated as verbal nouns due to the mandatory suffix they take. A vast majority of verbal nouns lack the vowel /i/ and its long variant, but this is not a universal rule, demonstrated easily by the Hngatil word for verbal nouns, ''ddingurru''.
 
Verbal nouns also share general phonological features, as well — all are required to end with vowels. Most verbal nouns start with either /d/, /k/, /k͡p/, or /a/, 


There are 18 noun classes that verbal nouns mark for. These are the suffixes:
There are 18 noun classes that verbal nouns mark for. These are the suffixes:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Cobmined noun class and nominalizing suffix
|+Combined noun class and nominalizing suffix
!Noun class
!Noun class
!Form
!Form
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| -hnahnu(u)
| -hnahnu(u)
|-
|-
!Other
!Concept, other
| -u(u)
| -rru(u)
|}
 
=== Pronouns ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="3" |
!Direct
case
!Inverse
case
|-
! rowspan="4" |Singular
! colspan="2" |1p
|dyuu
|p'aralla
|-
! colspan="2" |2p
|bbali
|p'atuulla
|-
! rowspan="2" |3p
!Masculine
|uty'i
|ity'illa
|-
!Feminine/neutral
|tpaga
|typ'anglla
|-
! rowspan="4" |Plural
! colspan="2" |1p
|p'iituu
|baulla
|-
! colspan="2" |2p
| colspan="2" |ggaklii
|-
! rowspan="2" |3p
!Masculine
|aty'a
|adyailla
|-
!Feminine/neutral
|nmirrit
|nidilla
|}
|}


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=== Word order ===
=== Word order ===
Basic word order in Hngatil depends on the transitivity of a verb in a phrase. For phrases that only contain an intransitive verb, or ambitransitive verbs that are used intransitively, the basic word order is as follows: ''Verb-Adjective-Subject''. For phrases that contain transitive, ditransitive, or ambritransitive verbs used transitively, the word order is ''Verb-Subject-Adjective-Direct Object-Indirect Object'', when applicable. Generally, however, Hngatil's word order is ''Verb-Subject-Object.''
There is no strict word order in Hngatil, though generally verbs come first in a clause.
 
== Examples ==
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