Kjaxono verbs: Difference between revisions

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Due to its complexity and widespread irregularities, unique words to describe unusual concepts in regards to conjugation, and concepts with little if any equivelant in any other natural language, verbs in [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]] often pose a mammoth stonewall to learners of the language. This article presupposes familiarity at least with [[Kjaxono grammar]].
Due to its complexity and widespread irregularities, unique neologisms to describe unusual concepts in regards to conjugation, and concepts with little if any equivelant in any other natural language, verbs in [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]] often pose a mammoth stonewall to learners of the language. This article presupposes familiarity with [[Kjaxono grammar]].
 
== Scales and subscales ==
When talking about Kjaxono, unique terminology is often employed when referring to its verbal system: the two most important are '''scales''' and '''subscales.''' These roughly correspond to ordinary conjugations in other languages, but scales and subscales distinguish themselves from other language's conjugation systems in several ways. For example, some scales may imply seperate inoformation of which in an ordinary language's conjugation would have to be conjugated in addition. Another difference is the manner of which Kjaxono verbs conjugate, which is also significantly different from other languages.
 
In the [[Cjaingi Omacili]], scales (Gqabakjoŋ /ɢa.'ba.kʲoŋ/ in [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]]) and subscales (Kangakjoŋ /ka.ɴa.kʲoŋ/) are described as so:
 
<code>"[...] it [Scales] [is] the system in verbs in which we classify, organize, and differentiate between the verbs in which take objects and not, to ensure that [subscales] see the lines and draw correctly in their wake [...]" ''(Page 291-292)''</code>
 
In Kjaxono, two types of scales are used: the transitive and intransitive. The transitive scale is used primarily for transitive verbs, aswell as with volitive verbs. The intransitive scale, meanwhile, is used for intransitive verbs and involitive verbs. Translated from the [[Cjaingi Omacili]], the two scales in Kjaxono translate as the ''Objective scale'', and ''Non-objective'' (or ''anti-objective'') scale respectively. The objective scale and non-objective scale are what these are referred to by most linguists in [[Xjetjeŋ]]. The three subscales within are called the  ''northern'' (qahaż), ''eastern'' (iemaqaż), and ''western'' (eameqeż) subscales. The northern subscale refers to verbs of any scale that start with front vowels, the eastern subscale refers to verbs of any scale that start with back vowels, and the western subscale refers to verbs that starts with consonants. 
 
== Specific terminology ==


== Overview ==
== Overview ==
Kjaxono verbs are usually constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features.  
Kjaxono verbs are constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features. Kjaxono verbs are also unique in that there are only 200-300 verbs in the language; more precise meanings are expressed by auxiliary verbs, or serial strings of other verbs. Kjaxono verbs are extremely closed class, contrasting with nouns, which are not.  


The ''imperative mood'' has two seperate submoods: the hard and soft. Typically, the hard imperative is used by people of higher social classes to people of lower social status (an example being an employer to an employee), by parents to children, etc. The soft imperative is used far more commonly, and acts as a more polite and formal version of the latter. Person marking in verbs can also specify the nature of definiteness in the pronoun. This feature - sometimes termed ''verbal personal definiteness'' - has little if any equivelance in any other natural language.  
Kjaxono verbs are constructed radically different than in other languages  


The ''perfect tense'' has 5 different forms, of which are conveyed via the preverb slot of Kjaxono's verb template. The individual perfect subtenses are sometimes considered tenses by themselves, but they do not vary morphologically except in the preverb.  
A unique feature only found in the [[Xjedgjaŋ languages|Xjedgjaŋ]] language family is the prescence of what is translated as ''pattern''. Pattern is described in most grammars of [[Kjaxono language|Kjaxono]] as an event's manner, in relation to time. Pattern should not be confused with aspect, with aspect being how an event ''extends'' over time. The two are often entangled, and in combination can produce many very precise meanings. There are four patterns in Kjaxono: 


* '''Person'''
* The '''punctual pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at a single moment in time. The event in question is usually very brief in duration. Some examples of such events would be the flick of a match, a clap, etc.
** ''Indefinite''
* The '''repetitive pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being regular. An example of such an event which would use the repetitive pattern would be the regular beeping noise of a fire alarm.
** ''Definite''
* The '''irregularitive pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being irregular.
* The '''fragmentative pattern''' describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, but in short bursts, or fragments, with the length of time between each event being irregular. The fragmentative pattern is occasionally considered a subpattern within the irregularitive pattern, but this article will treat the fragmentative pattern as a seperate pattern.
Kjaxono verbs conjugate for the following:
* '''Tense'''
* '''Tense'''
** ''[[W:Past tense|Past]]''
** ''[[W:Past tense|Past]]''
** ''[[W:Hodiernal tense|Hodiernal]]''
** ''[[W:Hodiernal tense|Hodiernal past]]''
** ''[[W:Present tense|Present]]''
** ''[[W:Present tense|Present]]''
** ''[[W:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]''
*** ''Continuative perfect''
*** ''Anterior perfect''
*** ''Universal perfect''
*** ''Recent perfect''
** ''[[W:Future tense|Future]]''
** ''[[W:Future tense|Future]]''
* '''Mood'''
* '''Mood'''
** ''[[W:Grammatical mood#Indicative|Indicative]]''
** ''[[W:Grammatical mood#Indicative|Indicative]]''
** ''[[W:Conditional mood|Conditional]]''
** ''[[W:Conditional mood|Conditional]]''
** ''[[W:Grammatical mood#Potential|Potential]]''
** ''[[W:Grammatical mood#Hypothetical|Hypothetical]]''
** ''[[W:Grammatical mood#Hypothetical|Hypothetical]]''
** ''[[W:Imperative mood|Imperative]]''
** ''[[W:Imperative mood|Imperative]]''
Line 50: Line 35:
* '''Aspect'''  
* '''Aspect'''  
** ''[[W:Perfective aspect|Perfective]]''
** ''[[W:Perfective aspect|Perfective]]''
** ''[[W:Momentane|Momentane]]''
** ''Habitual''
** ''[[W:Prospective aspect|Prospective]]''
** ''Continuous''
** ''[[W:Imperfective aspect|Imperfective]]''
** ''Gnomic''
** ''[[W:Continuous and progressive aspects|Progressive]]''
* '''Pattern'''
** ''[[W:Grammatical aspect#Terms for various aspects|Stative]]''
** ''Punctual''
** ''[[W:Gnomic aspect|Gnomic]]''
** ''Repetitive''
** ''Irregularitive''
** ''Fragmentative''
*'''Person'''
Kjaxono verbs are unique cross-linguistically in that for the most part, the full meaning that is conjugated for is only represented via the consonants, with the vowels in every slot except the verb stem being inserted to avoid illegal consonant clusters. The vowel that is inserted into the verb depends on the type of evidentiality being employed
 
=== Verb structure ===
=== Verb structure ===
Kjaxono uses a variety of prefixes and suffixes to conjugate verbs. The following chart shows the maximum amount of affixes and alterations a verb in Kjaxono can take in their usual order. Note that in everyday speech, most Kjaxono verbs do not take the amount of forms that the table may suggest.
Kjaxono uses a variety of prefixes and suffixes to conjugate verbs. The following chart shows the maximum amount of affixes and alterations a verb in Kjaxono can take in their usual order. Note that in everyday speech, most Kjaxono verbs do not take the amount of forms that the table may suggest. Kjaxono linguistics assigns names to the affixes; this is shown on the first row. For example, the PC slot refers to a polypersonal circumfix, the TM slot refers to the combined tense mood slot, and so on.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Kjaxono verb template
|+Kjaxono verb template
! colspan="2" |''PrV''
!'''PC'''
! colspan="4" |''TmpD''
! rowspan="3" |Vowel
!''E''
grade
! rowspan="3" |STEM
!TM
! colspan="2" |'''''At²'''''
!E
!''V''
! rowspan="3" |Stem
! colspan="2" |(PsV)
! rowspan="3" |Vowel
grade
!VPA
!TM
!P
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Preverb
| rowspan="2" |Polypersonal clitic
| rowspan="2" |''Tense''
|<u>Tense</u>
| rowspan="2" |''Mood''
|Evidentiality
| colspan="2" |''Person''
|Voice
| rowspan="2" |''Evidentiality''
| rowspan="2" |<u>Mood</u>
| rowspan="2" |''Aspect''
| rowspan="2" |Postverb
| rowspan="2" |''Tense''
| rowspan="2" |''Voice''
| colspan="2" |'''Postverb'''
|-
|-
|''(Locative type)''
|<u>Mood</u>
|''(Tense)''
|or Vowel(s)
|''Definiteness''
|Pattern
|''Indefiniteness''
|''Misc.''
|''(Evidentality)''
|-
|-
!1a
! rowspan="2" |1
!1b
! rowspan="2" |2
!2a
! rowspan="2" |3
!2
! rowspan="2" |4
!2b
! rowspan="2" |5
!2c
! rowspan="2" |6
!3
|Aspect
!4
! rowspan="2" |8
!5a
! rowspan="2" |9
!5b
|-
!6
!7
!7a
!7b
|}
|}
One will notice the prevelant double marking that Kjaxono verbs conjugate for.  
Only the tense and mood affix is required to be present within a Kjaxono verb. This is what is most commonly employed, though in semi-formal and formal speech more inflection is employed. 


In Kjaxono, preverbs serve many functions. In some subscales they are used to differentiate between different tenses (most notably each of the perfect tenses) but they serve other uses as well. The existance of post-verbs universally is highly debated, but they are a prevelant feature of the [...] dialect, and are beginning to be used in mainstream dialects. In most dialects, preverbs only conjugate for the perfect, past, and nonpast tenses; in the hodiernal and present tenses the preverb is usually simply absent.
== Objective verb conjugation ==
As previously stated, the objective verb conjugation covers all verbs that are transitive, and have positive volition.  


=== Conjugation process ===
=== Person marking ===
 
All Kjaxono verbs inflect for the subject, direct object, and indirect object of a phrase, when applicable.  
== Transitive scale (Objective scale) ==
 
=== Northern objective scale ===
For this section, the verb stem used is " aqaǔŋ" [aqa.'u:ŋ]; ''to bring.''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Preverb
|+
! colspan="4" |Perfect tenses
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |No direct object
! rowspan="2" |Past
or neutral as to one
! rowspan="2" |Nonpast
! colspan="4" |Subject
|-
!1p
!2p
!3p
!Dummy
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indirect
object
!1p
|c-
|n-
|j-
|x-
|-
!2p
|q-
|ż-
|k-
|l-
|-
!3p
!∅
|z-
|g-
|mj-
|-
! colspan="6" |Animate direct object
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="4" |Subject
|-
!1p
!2p
!3p
!Dummy
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indirect
object
!1p
|ck-
|nk-
|jk-
|xk-
|-
!2p
|qk-
|żk-
|kd-
|lk-
|-
!3p
|h-
|zk-
|gk-
|mk-
|-
! colspan="6" |Inanimate direct object
|-
|-
!Continuative perfect
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
!Anterior perfect
! colspan="4" |Subject
!Universal perfect
!Recent perfect
|-
|-
|''n(ǔ)-''
!1p
|''e(ǔ)-''
!2p
|''p(ǔ)-''
!3p
|''b(ǔ)-''
!Dummy
|''e(i)-''
|-
|''n-''
! rowspan="3" |Indirect
object
!1p
|s-
|x̌-
|z-
|ng-
|-
!2p
|r-
|ŋ-
|t-
|x̌jl-
|-
!3p
|b-
|m-
|rb-
|rj-
|}
|}
=== Tense/mood marking ===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Tense and Mood prefixes
|+
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Tense
!
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Mood
! colspan="3" |Singular
! rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Plural
! rowspan="8" |
! rowspan="2" |"Indefinite"
Marker
|-
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
!1st
!2nd
!3rd
|-
!Past
!Past
|''i-''
!Hodiernal past
! colspan="2" |Indicative
!Present
|''sj(e)-''
!Future
|''c(e)-''
| rowspan="2" |''kj(e)-''
|''s(e)-''
|''cj(e)-''
| rowspan="2" |''k(e)-''
| rowspan="6" |''o-''
|-
|-
!Hodiernal
!Indicative
|''ǔ-''
| -jt-
! colspan="2" |Conditional
| -ŋj-
|''x(e)-''
!∅
| rowspan="2" |''ŋ(e)-''
| -hl-
|''xj(e)-''
| rowspan="2" |''ŋj(e)-''
|-
|-
!Present
!Conditional
|'''''N/A'''''
| -jg-
! colspan="2" |Potential
| -tŋ-
|''q(e)-''
| -p-
|''tj(e)-''
| -rg-
| rowspan="2" |''l(e)-''
|''t(e)-''
|-
|-
!Perfect
!Hypothetical
|''ǔ-''
| -jq-
! colspan="2" |Hypothetical
| -tp-
|''h(i)''
| -xjt-
|''hŋ(i)-''
| -sk-
|''mq(i)-''
|''ŋj(u)-''
|''mj(i)-''
|-
|-
!Future
!Hard imperative
|''e-''
| -h-
! rowspan="2" |Imperative
| -hs-
!Hard
| -zng-
| rowspan="2" |'''''N/A'''''
| -gz-
| colspan="2" |''ż(o)-''
| rowspan="2" |'''''N/A'''''
| colspan="2" |''qż(o)-''
|-
|-
| colspan="2" |''Prefixed onto the T&M prefix''
!Soft imperative
!Soft
| -q- (-gq-)
| colspan="2" |''c(o)-''
| -x̌- (-n-)
| colspan="2" |''qac(o)-''
| -lg-
| -bh-
|}
|}
In addition, all tenses excluding the present triggers vowel gradation, turning the final vowel of the verb stem into /a/.
 
=== Vowel grades ===
These are the Kjaxono vowel grades. There are four vowel grades - the direct grade, reportative grade, assumptive grade, and neutral grade. The first three are used to indicate evidentiality within the verb. The direct grade is used for scenarios when the speaker directly witnessed the actions they talk about. The reportative grade is used for scenarios when the speaker is only reporting the actions they talk about. The assumptive grade is used for scenarios when the speaker assumes the actions they talk about occurred. The neutral grade is used for when evidentiality is not marked, and it is signified with the lack of a vowel in both vowel grade positions, but oftentimes a schwa is inserted to break up particularly large consonant clusters.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Evidentiality prefixes
|+
|-
!Direct
!Direct
| -(e)t-
|-
!Reportative
!Reportative
| -(e)d-
!Assumptive
|-
|-
!Assumptive
| -eǔ-
| -(e)ng-
| -u-
| -ǒ̖-
|}
|}


=== Southern objective scale ===
=== Voice/aspect/pattern marking ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="5" |Active voice
|-
!
!Punctual
!Repetitive
!Ireggularitive
!Fragmentative
|-
!Perfective
| -l-
| -q́r-
| -q́s-
| -q́br-
|-
!Habitual
| -śl-
| rowspan="2" | -śr-
| rowspan="2" | -ś-
| rowspan="2" | -śj-
|-
!Continuous
| -xl-
|-
!Gnomic
| -tŋ-
| -tr-
| -gq-
| -qŋ-
|-
! colspan="5" |Middle voice
|-
!
!Punctual
!Repetitive
!Ireggularitive
!Fragmentative
|-
!Perfective
| -ǧ-
| -ǧl-
| -ǧs-
| -ǧb-
|-
!Habitual
| -n-
| -nl-
| -ns-
| -nb-
|-
!Continuous
| -c-
| -cl-
| -cs-
| -cb-
|-
!Gnomic
| -n-
| -nl-
| -ns-
| -nb-
|-
! colspan="5" |Passive voice
|-
!
!Punctual
!Repetitive
!Ireggularitive
!Fragmentative
|-
!Perfective
| -'t-
| -'l-
| -'s-
| -'b-
|-
!Habitual
| -'n-
| -'nl-
| -'ns-
| -'nb-
|-
!Continuous
| -ż-
| -żl-
| -żs-
| -żg-
|-
!Gnomic
| -'n-
| -'nl-
| -'ns-
| -'nb-
|}


=== Eastern objective scale ===
=== Secondary mood marking ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Indicative
!Conditional
!Hypothetical
!Hard imperative
!Soft imperative
|-
| -njm-
| -nt-
| -gjm-
| -hm-
| -hd-
|}


== Intransitive scale (Nonobjective scale) ==
=== Common objective post verbs ===
 
The following is not at all an objective list of postverbs, but they are the most common. In these postverbs, the uppercase V indicates the vowel grades being used.
=== Northern nonobjective scale ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Postverb
!Meaning
|-
| -gVbh
|away from the object
|-
| -zVg
|towards the object
|-
| -śjVx
|forwards
|-
| -rh
|backwards
|-
| -sVk
|to the left
|-
| -Vm
|to the right
|-
| -q̌xVd
|around
|-
| -gqV
|inwards
|-
| -Vjt́
|outwards
|-
| -rqVt
|upwards
|-
| -rqVg
|downwards
|-
| -rqVš
|perpendicularly
|-
| -qVx̌
|over a straight path
|-
| -dVm
|over a curving path
|}


=== Southern nonobjective scale ===
=== Examples ===
"Assumptively, I usually could have repeatedly gone in a curved path to him" translates to ''hǒ̖jgǒ̖qośrntdǒ̖m.''


=== Eastern nonobjective scale ===
== Nonobjective verb conjugation ==


== Irregular verbs ==
== Irregular verbs ==


=== To be ===
=== To have ===


=== To have ===
=== To make ===


=== To do ===
=== To say ===


=== To eat ===
=== To go ===


=== To drink ===
=== To see ===

Latest revision as of 17:17, 12 January 2025

Due to its complexity and widespread irregularities, unique neologisms to describe unusual concepts in regards to conjugation, and concepts with little if any equivelant in any other natural language, verbs in Kjaxono often pose a mammoth stonewall to learners of the language. This article presupposes familiarity with Kjaxono grammar.

Overview

Kjaxono verbs are constructed agglutinatively, though they show many fusional features. Kjaxono verbs are also unique in that there are only 200-300 verbs in the language; more precise meanings are expressed by auxiliary verbs, or serial strings of other verbs. Kjaxono verbs are extremely closed class, contrasting with nouns, which are not.

Kjaxono verbs are constructed radically different than in other languages

A unique feature only found in the Xjedgjaŋ language family is the prescence of what is translated as pattern. Pattern is described in most grammars of Kjaxono as an event's manner, in relation to time. Pattern should not be confused with aspect, with aspect being how an event extends over time. The two are often entangled, and in combination can produce many very precise meanings. There are four patterns in Kjaxono:

  • The punctual pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at a single moment in time. The event in question is usually very brief in duration. Some examples of such events would be the flick of a match, a clap, etc.
  • The repetitive pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being regular. An example of such an event which would use the repetitive pattern would be the regular beeping noise of a fire alarm.
  • The irregularitive pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, with the length of time between each event being irregular.
  • The fragmentative pattern describes any event that occurs or is finished at many moments in time, but in short bursts, or fragments, with the length of time between each event being irregular. The fragmentative pattern is occasionally considered a subpattern within the irregularitive pattern, but this article will treat the fragmentative pattern as a seperate pattern.

Kjaxono verbs conjugate for the following:

Kjaxono verbs are unique cross-linguistically in that for the most part, the full meaning that is conjugated for is only represented via the consonants, with the vowels in every slot except the verb stem being inserted to avoid illegal consonant clusters. The vowel that is inserted into the verb depends on the type of evidentiality being employed

Verb structure

Kjaxono uses a variety of prefixes and suffixes to conjugate verbs. The following chart shows the maximum amount of affixes and alterations a verb in Kjaxono can take in their usual order. Note that in everyday speech, most Kjaxono verbs do not take the amount of forms that the table may suggest. Kjaxono linguistics assigns names to the affixes; this is shown on the first row. For example, the PC slot refers to a polypersonal circumfix, the TM slot refers to the combined tense mood slot, and so on.

Kjaxono verb template
PC Vowel

grade

TM E Stem Vowel

grade

VPA TM P
Polypersonal clitic Tense Evidentiality Voice Mood Postverb
Mood or Vowel(s) Pattern
1 2 3 4 5 6 Aspect 8 9
7

Only the tense and mood affix is required to be present within a Kjaxono verb. This is what is most commonly employed, though in semi-formal and formal speech more inflection is employed.

Objective verb conjugation

As previously stated, the objective verb conjugation covers all verbs that are transitive, and have positive volition.

Person marking

All Kjaxono verbs inflect for the subject, direct object, and indirect object of a phrase, when applicable.

No direct object

or neutral as to one

Subject
1p 2p 3p Dummy
Indirect

object

1p c- n- j- x-
2p q- ż- k- l-
3p ∅ z- g- mj-
Animate direct object
Subject
1p 2p 3p Dummy
Indirect

object

1p ck- nk- jk- xk-
2p qk- żk- kd- lk-
3p h- zk- gk- mk-
Inanimate direct object
Subject
1p 2p 3p Dummy
Indirect

object

1p s- x̌- z- ng-
2p r- ŋ- t- x̌jl-
3p b- m- rb- rj-

Tense/mood marking

Past Hodiernal past Present Future
Indicative -jt- -ŋj- ∅ -hl-
Conditional -jg- -tŋ- -p- -rg-
Hypothetical -jq- -tp- -xjt- -sk-
Hard imperative -h- -hs- -zng- -gz-
Soft imperative -q- (-gq-) -x̌- (-n-) -lg- -bh-

Vowel grades

These are the Kjaxono vowel grades. There are four vowel grades - the direct grade, reportative grade, assumptive grade, and neutral grade. The first three are used to indicate evidentiality within the verb. The direct grade is used for scenarios when the speaker directly witnessed the actions they talk about. The reportative grade is used for scenarios when the speaker is only reporting the actions they talk about. The assumptive grade is used for scenarios when the speaker assumes the actions they talk about occurred. The neutral grade is used for when evidentiality is not marked, and it is signified with the lack of a vowel in both vowel grade positions, but oftentimes a schwa is inserted to break up particularly large consonant clusters.

Direct Reportative Assumptive
-eǔ- -u- -ǒ̖-

Voice/aspect/pattern marking

Active voice
Punctual Repetitive Ireggularitive Fragmentative
Perfective -l- -q́r- -q́s- -q́br-
Habitual -śl- -śr- -ś- -śj-
Continuous -xl-
Gnomic -tŋ- -tr- -gq- -qŋ-
Middle voice
Punctual Repetitive Ireggularitive Fragmentative
Perfective -ǧ- -ǧl- -ǧs- -ǧb-
Habitual -n- -nl- -ns- -nb-
Continuous -c- -cl- -cs- -cb-
Gnomic -n- -nl- -ns- -nb-
Passive voice
Punctual Repetitive Ireggularitive Fragmentative
Perfective -'t- -'l- -'s- -'b-
Habitual -'n- -'nl- -'ns- -'nb-
Continuous -ż- -żl- -żs- -żg-
Gnomic -'n- -'nl- -'ns- -'nb-

Secondary mood marking

Indicative Conditional Hypothetical Hard imperative Soft imperative
-njm- -nt- -gjm- -hm- -hd-

Common objective post verbs

The following is not at all an objective list of postverbs, but they are the most common. In these postverbs, the uppercase V indicates the vowel grades being used.

Postverb Meaning
-gVbh away from the object
-zVg towards the object
-śjVx forwards
-rh backwards
-sVk to the left
-Vm to the right
-q̌xVd around
-gqV inwards
-Vjt́ outwards
-rqVt upwards
-rqVg downwards
-rqVš perpendicularly
-qVx̌ over a straight path
-dVm over a curving path

Examples

"Assumptively, I usually could have repeatedly gone in a curved path to him" translates to hǒ̖jgǒ̖qośrntdǒ̖m.

Nonobjective verb conjugation

Irregular verbs

To have

To make

To say

To go

To see

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